Why has Educational Research adopted structured abstracts?

Caroline Sharp, Frances Brill and Sandie Schagen, National Foundation for Educational Research

This document explains why we have decided to use structured abstracts and gives worked examples for authors to follow.

1 Introduction
The quality of research abstracts in education and other fields has been the focus of much recent debate (Bell et al., 2002; Fidler, 2002; Grayson and Gomersall, 2003). This arises from a number of developments, including the popularity of 'evidence informed' practice, the increased use of electronic databases and web searching for literature retrieval, and the drive to make research more accessible to practitioners and policy-makers.

As anyone called upon to conduct a literature review knows, current abstracts are not sufficiently informative, detailed or consistent to enable initial decision-making about an article. This has led to a call for the introduction of a 'structured abstract' with a set of common headings (Hartley, 1997; Hartley and Sydes, 1997; Mosteller et al., 2004).

2 What are the potential benefits of structured abstracts?
Adopting a structured abstract for Educational Research will benefit contributors, reviewers, readers and those conducting literature reviews.

• Contributors will benefit from being provided with a standard structure for their abstract. It will make writing abstracts easier and will ensure that contributors do not inadvertently omit key pieces of information (from the full article as well as the abstract) that are required to assess its suitability for publication
• Those reviewing articles for inclusion in a journal will have the information needed to assess the appeal and quality of a submission
• Readers will be able to assess the relevance of an article by reading the abstract. This would ensure that their time is spent more productively. Structured abstracts may also be easier to read than traditional ones (Hartley and Sydes, 1997).
• People conducting literature reviews will be able to access explanatory abstracts from Educational Research that will enable them to make decisions about the pertinence of an article to their review. It will also ensure that key information is included in the article itself, making articles of greater use to literature reviews.
• Structured abstracts should make Educational Research attractive to those responsible for compiling abstracting services, databases and gateways.

3 What would a structured abstract contain?
In order to consider this question, it is important to look at existing and proposed structures (see British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1996; Hartley, 1997; Mosteller et al., 2004). It is also important to draw on our extensive experience of conducting literature reviews at the NFER.

The majority of articles published by Educational Research are empirical studies. Other types of article that may be published by Educational Research include literature reviews, theoretical articles, and opinion pieces. The same structure is not applicable to all types of article, but the template for empirical studies can be adapted for literature reviews and theoretical articles.

4 Structures
Three structures are set out below, together with a worked example of each. The three structures are designed to be suitable for the main types of article published in Educational Research, namely: an empirical study, a literature review and a theoretical/opinion piece.

4.1 Structure for empirical studies

A structure for empirical studies is given below. This should be equally suitable for large-scale quantitative studies and for small-scale qualitative work.

4.1.1 Worked example for an empirical study SHARP, C., KENDALL, L. and SCHAGEN, I. (2003). 'Different for girls? An exploration of the impact of Playing for Success', Educational Research, 45, 3, 309 -24.

Background
There have been a number of government initiatives aimed at improving performance among underachieving young people. Playing for Success is one such initiative to establish after-school study centres in football grounds. However, there have been some criticisms of the initiative, suggesting that the football context may discriminate against girls and young people from minority ethnic backgrounds.

Purpose
This article uses data from the second year of the national evaluation to examine the appeal and impact of the initiative in relation to gender and ethnicity.

Programme description
Playing for Success is a study support initiative, established in professional football grounds in England. It aims to help young people who are underachieving at school, particularly in literacy and numeracy. Pupils usually attend the Centres for around 20 hours over a ten-week period. Centres focus on motivation and basic skills in literacy, numeracy and ICT.

Sample
A total of 1,247 pupils participated in the main evaluation study and a further 244 similar pupils comprised the control group. Study participants were aged from 11 to 15. They attended the 12 largest Playing for Success Centres, all of which were located in England. The majority of participants (55 per cent) were male; 15 per cent were from minority ethnic backgrounds. They were achieving at a low level, compared with national norms.

Design and methods
The evaluation used an experimental design, with pre- and post-course assessment four Centres used random allocation to treatment or control group and the fifth used a matched sample. The study included the 12 largest Centres operating at the time and sampled a cohort of young people attending in the spring term, 2000. Data were collected by questionnaire survey from young people, their teachers and parents. Pupils were tested at the beginning and end of their time at the Centre. The study used specially designed tests of reading comprehension and numeracy (the tests were age standardised). There were also measures of ICT skills and pupil attitudes. The study collected qualitative data via interviews with pupils and staff in nine schools. Multilevel modelling was used to analyse outcome data.

Results
A majority of pupils (86 per cent) expressed an interest in football, and there were no gender differences on this question. Pupils from minority ethnic groups were less likely to answer the question and were less likely to support their Centre's team. There were no gender- or ethnicity-related differences in pupils' satisfaction with the programme. Parents, teachers and pupils had positive views about football-related aspects of Playing for Success. Overall, pupils made good progress on the outcome measures, compared with control-group pupils, particularly in numeracy, and ICT. There were very few significant differences in progress related to gender or ethnicity.

Conclusions
The evidence suggests that football is equally popular among girls and boys. Playing for Success appears to impact equally on pupils from both genders and on children from different ethnic groups.

4.2 Structure for a literature review

4.2.1 Worked example for a literature review
HOBSON, A. (2003). Mentoring and Coaching for New Leaders: a Review of the Literature. Nottingham: NCSL.

Background
Mentoring and coaching have been increasingly used in recent years in relation to the training and induction of new leaders, including headteachers. However, there has been little research into their effectiveness.

Purpose
This paper explores the mentoring and coaching strategies being used to assist the development of new leaders. It examines evidence for the effectiveness of those strategies in relation to the professional development of new headteachers in their first headship.

Design and methods
The review entailed a systematic search of databases of literature published in the UK and other English-speaking countries since 1982. Selective internet searches were also conducted. Approximately 1100 abstracts and references were examined, 345 documents were read, and 67 full reviews were undertaken. Critical summaries were produced and analysed using MaxQDA.

Results
There were a number of mentoring programmes (including a national pilot, and LEA provision) for new headteachers, but few reports gave details of the strategies employed. Mentors in England disliked the term 'coaching', and preferred to speak of 'mutual learning' or 'collaboration'.

Programmes were reported by participants to have been successful. They identified several potential benefits for new heads, including the reduction of stress and isolation, increased confidence and self-esteem. Mentoring was also said to have a positive impact on mentors' professional development and skills. Research studies suggested that many factors can and do impact on the effectiveness of mentoring schemes, especially the availability of time, matching/pairing of mentors and mentees, the qualities/attributes of mentors and the training they receive.

Conclusions
The evidence suggests that mentoring tends to be effective and to bring a range of benefits to those involved. There are also helpful suggestions about the conditions needed for effective mentoring. However, the evidence derives mainly from the perceptions of participants, and research evidence is lacking on the subsequent impact of mentoring on the performance of new headteachers.

4.3 Structure for a theoretical/discussion piece

4.3.1 Worked example for a theoretical/discussion piece POOLE, J. (2003). 'Dyslexia: a wider view. The contribution of an ecological paradigm to current issues', Educational Research, 45, 2, 167-80.

Background
The nature and existence of dyslexia as a form of learning disability is a current topic of considerable debate.

Purpose
This article explores some widely debated issues in dyslexia: whether dyslexia exists and its status as a learning problem, the lack of an agreed definition, the medical/educational argument, assessment procedures and the child's experience of being labelled as a 'failure'. This article considers the potential advantages of an ecological perspective on dyslexia.

Sources of evidence
Some unresolved issues in dyslexia are examined and discussed, including the 'Bubble' versus 'Continuum' argument and the existence of several definitions of dyslexia.

Main argument
It is suggested that much of the current debate about dyslexia is largely constructed within the scientific paradigm and that much research data pertinent to learning problems is currently under-applied. The concentration on 'diagnosis' is considered to be unhelpful as it results in the labelling of a child as different or failing. Evidence of how such labelling may harm the self-esteem of dyslexic children is presented. A change of policy is necessary, which can only be achieved through a change of paradigm. The ecological perspective is an ideographic position which views the child within his/her familial, social and cultural context. The advantages of applying this model to issues in dyslexia are put forward and discussed, in terms of changes to assessment (assessment of all children, not just dyslexic children) and changes to educational practice (adoption of whole-school dyslexia-friendly teaching methods, awareness of individual learning styles, use of an ecological reading system and non-literary ecological interventions). In addition, it is suggested that a wider perspective would allow currently unapplied research on the early predictors of dyslexia and the child's subjective experience of education to be considered.

Conclusions
By considering dyslexia from an ecological perspective, it would be possible to develop educational practice to meet the needs of all learners. A wider role for assessment is the key factor: it provides a method of gaining an all-round understanding of the child within their life-context. By widening the perspective, children may be liberated from constructed 'failure' and schools may become free to value individuality and creativity.

5 Conclusion
In making the decision to adopt a structured abstract, such as those presented above, the editorial board of Educational Research has ensured that the journal takes a lead in the field to the benefit of contributors, subscribers and educational research in general.

6 References
BELL, M., CORDINGLEY, P., CURTIS, A., EVANS, D., HUGHES, S. and SHREEVE, A. (2002). 'Bringing research resources to practitioner users via web technology: lessons learned to date.' Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Exeter, 12-14 September [online]. Available: http://brs.leeds.ac.uk/cgi-bin/brs_engine [10 May, 2004].

BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (1996). 'Editorial announcement: structured abstracts', British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 3.

FIDLER, B. (2002). 'Systematic reviews, titles and abstracts', School Leadership & Management, 22, 2, 109-11.

GRAYSON, L. and GOMERSALL, A. (2003). A Difficult Business: Finding the Evidence for Social Science Reviews (Working Paper 19). London: ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice.

HARTLEY, J. (1997). 'Is it appropriate to use structured abstracts in social science journals?' Learned Publishing, 10, 4, 313-17.

HARTLEY, J. and SYDES, M. (1997). 'Are structured abstracts easier to read than traditional ones?' Journal of Research in Reading, 20, 2, 122-36.

MOSTELLER, F., NAVE, B. and MIECH, E.J. (2004). 'Why we need a structured abstract in education research', Educational Researcher, 33, 1, 29-34.