The Journal of Slavic Military Studies

Abstracts of articles in Issue 16.1

From Offence to Defence? Russia’s Reform of its Biological Weapons Complex and the Implications for Western Security by Anthony Rimmington

The Russian Federation’s military microbiological complex is of global significance and represents one of the world’s major reservoirs of biological weapons (BW) expertise, embracing several thousand weapons scientists, extensive stocks of highly pathogenic (and potentially, genetically modified) strains, dedicated research and production facilities and delivery systems. These are a legacy of the vast offensive biological weapons programme aggressively pursued throughout the 1970s and the 1980s by the Soviet Union. This article looks beyond public statements reaffirming Russia’s commitment to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) and seeks to determine, where possible, the degree of progress which has been made over the past decade and more, towards the dismantlement of the Soviet infrastructure supporting an offensive biological warfare programme. It seeks to provide a balanced analysis of legitimate concerns regarding the management and direction of Russian BW programmes and places these within the context of recent US and European reservations regarding Russia’s full compliance with the 1972 BWC.

Difficult Times for the Russian Air Force, 1992–2002 by Stéphane Lefebvre

The Russian Air Force (Voyenno-vozdushnyye Sily—VVS) is no longer the feared instrument that it was in Soviet times. The past ten years have proven to be very challenging, if not disquieting. The problems encountered today by the VVS stem from an economy in reconstruction, a new strategic environment, and parochial interests. Lack of financial resources has affected readiness, training, maintenance, research and development, modernization, the purchase of new weapons systems, logistical support to aircraft, flight safety, and the resolution of social problems. Given its lingering problems, a modern Air Force with a professional and technically proficient staff is not likely to emerge until 2020

The Future of Russian Sea-Based Deterrent by Dr. Victor Mizin and Michael Jasinski

The U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty, the demise of START II, and the signing of the Moscow Treaty gave Russia considerable flexibility in its strategic planning. With comparatively few restrictions on the composition of its strategic forces, Russia may now fashion its strategic deterrent in accordance with its needs and capabilities. However, as the recent developments concerning Russia’s strategic naval forces show, Russian strategic planners continue to treat nuclear strategic forces not only as a means of deterrence, but also as a great power status symbol. As a result, preference is given to maintaining a force larger than available funding can sustain. Such policies not only create the danger of accidents, but also endanger the existence of the naval strategic deterrent as a whole.

‘Inevitably Every Man Has His Threshold’: Soviet Military Psychiatry during World War II – A Comparative Approach by Paul Wanke

This article examines Soviet military psychiatry and its performance during World War II, using both an historical and comparative approach. It argues that Soviet military psychiatry had strong roots in pre-revolutionary Russian psychiatry, especially its emphasis on the materialistic view of mental illness. This is highlighted by comparing Soviet military psychiatry with the American experience during the war. American psychiatry was orientated towards the individual patient and had a difficult time adjusting to wartime conditions. However, Soviet military psychiatry was geared towards service to the militarized state formed by the Bolsheviks. It assumed war and therefore planned for it, thus Soviet psychiatry was legitimized by its ability to provide assistance during wartime.

The Red Army’s Troop Mobilization in the Kiev Special Military District During September 1939 by Andrity Rukkas

Having begun to play more active role in European politics during the late 1930s, circumstances compelled the Soviet Union to rely greatly upon the strength of its Red Army, which, was, supposedly, one of the principal instruments for the creation of a ‘World Socialist System’ and for the spreading of revolutionary ideas. In order to satisfy its global ambitions, on 23 August 1939 Stalin’s government signed a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany. According to the additional secret protocols attached to that document, the USSR was presented with a genuine opportunity to solve the problem of the ‘Riga borders’, specifically, the borders between the Soviet Union, Poland, and the Baltic States established in 1921 by the Treaty of Riga, by possible future ‘territorial and political changes’ in Poland. One week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany attacked Poland, by doing so starting the Second World War. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union began preparations to invade and annex eastern Poland. This article focuses on Soviet mobilization activity in the Kiev Special Military District, which, along with similar activity in the Belorussian Special Military District, were of immense strategic importance for the USSR’s military capability. Detailed analysis of the mobilization process in this important military district reveals the difficulties, problems, and complications the Soviet military machine faced throughout the entire mobilnization process. On 3 September 1939, Marshal Kliment Voroshilov, People’s Commissar of Defence of the Soviet Union, ordered the Military Councils (commanders, chiefs of staff, and commissars) of seven military districts (the Kiev Special, Belorussian Special, Khar’kov, Orel, Kalinin, Leningrad. and Moscow) to undertake preliminary measures to increase the combat readiness of their troops. In part, Voroshilov’s order required the Military Councils to (a) halt for one month the release to reserve duty of soldiers who were in their last year of service; (b) call back from vacation all commanders, political workers, and heads of military units and institutions; and (c) place all military units on a combat-ready status, and, in addition, inspect all weapons, equipment, and material.

Stalin's Insistent Endeavors at Conquering Finland by Carlo Nordling

During the period 1938–1948, Stalin managed to expand his ‘personal empire’, the Soviet Union with its fringe of satellites, by annexing a number of formerly independent nations. Among these were several that had not belonged to the Empire of the Czars. But although he made many attempts, Stalin failed to annex Finland to his own Empire. He began with preparations in the 1930's, waged war in 1939–40, tried with subversive ‘fifth column’ methods in the summer of 1940, ensured that Finland became involved in the Soviet-German war 1941–45 and launched a formidable offensive in the shade of Operation Overlord. All in vain. Finally, in 1948, he reverted to his fifth columnists and urged them to seize power and make Finland a ‘people's democracy’. Although this scheme worked perfectly in Prague, it was a flop in Helsinki.

Letters of a Soviet Soldier by Leonid Kanochkin

Abstracts of articles in Issue 15.4

WEAPONS PROLIFERATION

Lessons of the Early Cold War for Understanding WMD Proliferation Today by LYLE GOLDSTEIN

Consideration of employing military options against rogue proliferators is, in many respects, a throwback to the period of the early Cold War. Preventive and preemptive war options have once again become a regular part of strategic discourse. This article explores similarities between the early Cold War and the present era, focusing on how the process of proliferation creates acute fears about shifting balances of power and the risks of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) conflict. Drawing on recently published US and Russian sources, which have enabled a vastly improved empirical understanding of this period over the last decade, the article illustrates how the instability of the ‘age of crises’ derived in large part from three rational pathways to global war. It is argued that these three pathways are also present in the contemporary strategic environment. Also, various stabilizing elements that existed during the early Cold War are not likely to function in present circumstances. The article concludes that instability may be an inherent feature of radically asymmetric WMD rivalry.

THE YUGOSLAV DILEMMA

Whose is the Partisan Movement? Serbs, Croats and the Legacy of a Shared Resistance by Marko Attila Hoare

The Partisan movement of 1941- 45 in Axis-ruled Yugoslavia united Serbs, Croats and members of other nationalities in a common resistance to the occupier. However, the various Yugoslav peoples did not participate in the movement to the same degree or in the same manner; support for the Partisans varied according to region and nationality. Since the birth of this movement there have been conflicting claims, both from among its supporters and from the ranks of its enemies, that it was Serb or Croat in character rather than genuinely multinational. Up until the present day both Serbs and Croats as well as Muslims and others lay claim to some aspects of the Partisan heritage whilst rejecting others; a sign of the complexity of the movement’s legacy.

THE CZECH ARMY

Stresses Influencing the Psychological Condition of the Czechoslovak NBC Unit in the Persian Gulf Region, 1990- 1991 by Jií Hodný and estmír Blaek

During the Gulf War, the Czechoslovak Nuclear Biological Chemical (NBC) unit deployed in the Persian Gulf region faced a wide variety of stresses, ranging from a language barrier to severe logistical problems. This article analyzes the stresses that the unit’s soldiers confronted while training for the mission, during the deployment, and after their return to the former Czechoslovakia. The authors pinpoint the many ways in which the Czechoslovak Army’s leaders failed their subordinates during all three phases of this military action. Moreover, the authors note that the unit’s veterans largely have had to fend for themselves in the years since the Gulf War.

THE BATTLE AT KHALKIN -GOL

Red Army Artillery in the Armed Conflict on the Khalkhin-Gol River by Vladimir S. Mil’bakh

In the dozens of books dealing with general history and in the memoir literature of the Soviet period, the Red Army’s combat operations on the Khalkhin-Gol River in 1939 are, as a rule, characterized only by superlatives. History, however, consists of facts that cannot, by themselves, change, although their evaluation can and should change. Therefore, one can take a new approach to studying the combat operations on the Khalkhin-Gol River, the employment of Soviet artillery in this conflict in particular, and provide a different treatment and assessment of many facts.

OVERLORD AND FINLAND, JUNE 1944

In the Shade of Overlord by Carl O. Nordling

At Tehran, 1943, Stalin promised to support Operation Overlord with an attack on his German front. He did nothing of the sort. Instead he tried to conquer Finland and sent his peace feelers to Hitler. His moves took foe and friend alike with surprise and reactions were generally inadequate. Finland’s defense was on the verge of collapse through an oversight by the Supreme Command and the negligence of the Commander of the Naval Forces. It seems that Stalin hoped for a failure of Overlord and did what he could to bring it about. With the Anglo-Americans thrown off Normandy he would have got a chance to dominate Europe north of the Alps.

FORGOTTEN BATTLES

Rzhev July – August 1942: The Battle for Hill 200 by Nikolai Belov and Tat’iana Mikhailova

MEMORIES OF POST-WORLD WAR II

Part 5. Red Army Service During the First Postwar Years by Evgenii Moniushko

After elevating his harrowing experiences besieged in Leningrad and his subsequent wartime service in the Red Army, in this article, Evgenii Moniushko describes his postwar service and demobilization from the Red Army. A such, it is the first account to describe in detaril the circumstances encountered during the Red Army’s postwar demobilization in 1945–46.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 15.3

RUSSIAN MILITARY AFFAIRS

Russia’s Vanishing Deterrent by Stephen J. Cimbala

The Soviet/Russian Approach to Military Space by Matthew Mowthorpe

This article examines Russia's military space activities since the breakup of the Soviet Union. The development of Soviet Military Space during the Cold War is addressed through the prism of the theories of space power. Although these concepts of space power are mainly the product of the United States Air Force's thinking they provide an insight into Soviet thinking on the issue of weaponization of space. The Soviet approach to military space was based on the writings of Sovoloskiy which provides an alternative concept to the realm of space. The extent to which this approach is still relevant today will be examined along with the Russian Military Space programme and the fate of the military space units in the former Soviet Republics. The conversion of military equipment for so called civilian purposes is also addressed. The negotiations with Kazakhstan over the cosmodrome in Baykonur, the only one outside of Russia, is scrutinized. The military utilization of space facilities is analyzed in terms of its contribution to the conventional forces. Lastly, the cooperation with the United States is examined with Russia both in terms of the potential for cooperation with the global protection system and in the field of launch technology.

Not 22 June 1941: Time for Change? Debatable Views on Current Thinking on the Nature of ‘Invasion’ by Steven J. Main

Written before the events of 11 September 2001, the author argues for the adoption of a much broader, more contemporary definition of the concept of invasion, using the experience of previous military campaigns in the 1991 Gulf War and, more recently, the wars in the Balkans but not, curiously enough, Russia’s won military experience of the 1990s. If such views are put into practice, then this could have important repercussions for the future of the Russian Armed Forces – in terms of force structure, weapons procurement – as well as in relation to Russia’s relationship with the CIS countries and NATO.

THE RUSSO-CHECHEN WAR

The Second Russo-Chechen Conflict (1999 to date): A ‘Modern Military Operation’? by Robert Garwood

This article argues that the generic post-Cold War modern operation represents a tentative and self-reflective endeavour, incorporating actions cautiously constructed around considerations of both military efficiency and socio-political legitimacy. Chechnya 2 demonstrates that Russia’s military-political elite is cognisant of the sensitivity oriented norms and procedures associated with such undertakings, emphasized by Moscow’s ongoing efforts to societally legitimize this ‘domestic’ campaign. Nevertheless, given the ‘victory imperative’ stemming form the geo-strategic significance of the conflict, the lack of viable alternative options, and Russia’s military cultural heritage, the protracted venture continues to embody a traditionally insensitive, objective-oriented military endeavour.

FROM THE CZECHOSLOVAK EXPERIENCE

Democracy at the Crossroads: the Czech Extreme Right in the 1935 Czechoslovak Elections by David Kelly

By the mid-1930s, Czechoslovakia occupied an increasingly insecure geopolitical position within Europe. Surrounded by states that had switched to authoritarian or totalitarian governments, most notably Nazi Germany, it also faced the threat of native fascist movements (Czech, Slovak, and German) on its own territory. The 1935 parliamentary and presidential elections were, to some degree, referenda on whether the country should shift to an authoritarian system. Thanks to the skillful political maneuvering of Edvard Benes and the ineptitude of the Czech right wing, the country preserved a democratic system until the Munich Agreement of fall 1938.

SOVIET WARTIME PENAL FORCES

A ‘Penal’ Corps on the Kalinin Front by Igor’s Mangazeev

In memory of my grandfather, Nikifor Ivanovich Kutkin, soldier of A. V. Kolchak, Supreme Ruler of Russia, private in the 1262nd Rifle Regiment of the Red Army’s 380th Altai Division, a volunteer who died the death of the valiant in March 1942 in the fighting on the Kalinin Front during the Rzhev-Viaz’ma Offensive Operation.

MEMORIES OF WORLD WAR II

Memoirs of the Soviet–German War, Part 3, Red Army Service in Silesisa and Czechoslovakia during 1945 by Evgenii Moniushko After surviving the first year of the Leningrad blockade, the author Evgenii Moniushko completed his training in a military academy in Tomsk and reported for duty with an anti-tank regiment in the Sandomiersz bridgehead in Poland. This segment of Moniushko’s memoirs describes his perspective on the heavy and bitter fighting in Silesia and Czechoslovakia during the winter and spring of 1945 as Hitler’s Germany was in its death throes.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 15.2

Russia and NATO toward the Twenty-First Century: Conflicts and Peacekeeping in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo by Sharyl Cross

The new Russian-NATO relationship plunged to the lowest point during NATO’s 78-day Kosovo air campaign in Spring 1999. Despite the difficulties at the political level, the analysis suggests that Russia’s participation in joint peacekeeping with US/NATO forces in Bosnia-Herzegovina (IFOR/SFOR) and Kosovo (KFOR) stand as perhaps the most encouraging aspect of the contemporary Russian-NATO relationship. These successes in peacekeeping tended to be overshadowed by the serious strains between Russia and NATO in developing a response to the implosion of Yugoslavia. While such practical cooperation between Russia and NATO can contribute to eroding the barriers of the past and to the development of a constructive relationship for the twenty-first century, these military-to-military accomplishments cannot shape broader Russian-NATO strategic priorities. The article concludes with examination of Moscow’s postmortem assessments on Kosovo and evaluation of prospects for the future of the Russian-NATO relationship in the aftermath of the Yugoslav experience.

The Initial Period of War: Russia’s Soviet Heritage by Stephen J. Cimbala

Soviet military planners of the Cold War years were understandably concerned with the problem of the ‘initial period of war’. Soviet experience in World War II, together with the postwar availability of nuclear weapons to Soviet adversaries, made imperative the serious study of options for winning wars in their initial period. This Soviet heritage is of considerable relevancy for Russia now, albeit with some twists. Soviet Cold War planners could assert some scenarios for prevailing in a short war in Europe that remained beneath the nuclear threshold. Contemporary Russia must rely on nuclear first use to compensate for its conventional inferiority to NATO. Soviet military thinking of the 1980s, about defensive sufficiency and alternative conventional defense postures, holds important insights for contemporary Russian planners who might want viable defense options short of nuclear war.

The Czech and Slovak Armed Forces immediately before the CSFR Split: Notes from Canadian Classified Diplomatic Records by Stéphane Lefebvre

A recent Access to Information Act request to the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and international Trade resulted in the release of 256 pages of text concerning the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR) defense and security issues. A close look at the available records reveals some of the subjects of interest to the Canadian government as well as their relative importance given to various security and defense issues. The material also offers information which is not usually very accessible to researchers. From the pages that were released, I conclude that the Canadian government, in the last year preceding the end of the CSFR, did not have a very good appreciation of what was happening within the armed forces and that its reporting and, particularly, its analysis of security and defense were rather superficial. Of course, this is only based on a limited sample of the records. This conclusion will only stand as long as the remaining classified records are kept under wrap. However, I believe that the records released under the act could be of assistance to researchers attempting to piece together the history of the dying days of the Czechoslovak armed forces. This story has yet to be written.

Memoirs of the Soviet-German War: Part 2, To War’s End by Evgenii Moniushko (Translated by Oleg Sheremet)

After surviving the terrible first year of the Leningrad blockade, the author Evgenii Moniushko, and his family were evacuated to safety in Siberia. This excerpt from Moniushko’s memoir describes his subsequent adjustment to wartime life in a small Siberian village, his summons into and service in the Red Army. After training as an artillery officer at a military academy in Tomsk, Moniushko served as a junior officer in an antitank artillery regiment in southern Poland where he was wounded in heavy fighting on the Sandomierz bridgehead in fall 1944 and evacuated for medical treatment. This article provides a unique, unprecedented, intensely human and often poignant perspective on day-to-day life in the Red Army as the Soviet Union struggled to prevail in its struggle against Nazi Germany.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 15.1

Russian Chemical Weapons: Proliferation or Destruction? by Maria Katsva

The 11 September 2001 attack on the USA revealed that terrorists are willing to inflict mass casualities and might use weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to increase the scope of their acts. Chemical weapons (CW) are the easiest to use and obtain, and have been more frequently used in terrorist acts and terrorist threats. However, it is not very easy to produce them, and far easier to steal them. Poorly secured and protected Russian CW storages could become a source of CW for terrorists. The easiest way to prevent CW smuggling is to destroy chemical arsenals as soon as possible. The article addresses the problems associated with CW destruction in Russia and ways to solve them.

The Soviet/Russian Antisatellite (ASAT) Programme During the Cold War and Beyond by Matthew Mowthorpe

The article outlines the development of the Soviet antisatellite (ASAT) in terms of both the organisational structure and eventual ASAT testing and the development of its capability. It analyses the Soviet ASAT testing methods to gain insight into the strengths and operational capabilities of its programme. Having analysed the extensive Soviet SAT development during the Cold War the article progresses to analyse Russia's continuing work on ASAT weaponry.

The Evolution of Democratic Civil-Military Relations in Bulgaria by Dessie P Zagorcheva

This article proposes a two-level framework for analyzing the reforms of civil-military relations in post-Communist Bulgaria. The first level of analysis (legal/institutional), or the formal basis for civilian control, includes the new laws, procedures, and institutions that were established after the fall of Communism in 1989. Second-level analysis (or the level of political behaviour) goes beyond legal analysis and focuses on civilian and military decision-makers and their interactions. The main second-level variables are the attitudes and values of civilian and military officials, their conception of civilian control and their knowledge and expertise in national security. Only a two-level analysis can account for the complexities in the civil-military relationship and show that, while legal and institutional issues are largely solved, there are still some problems related to the consolidation of democratic civilian control, some of which stem from the lack of civilians with expertise in military matters.

World War I: A Russian National Perspective July 1914 to February 1917 (Materials from Saratov Province) by Anton V Posadskii

Fpor nearly 85 years, historians have pondered and debated the causes of the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 and the emergence of a full-fledged Bolshevik regime shortly thereafter. While they have recognised that the immense pressures of war were instrumental in formenting the unrest that led to revolution, they had been unable to document their conclusions with genuine archival evidence. Posadskii's work begins to fill that archival vacuum. By examining and analyzing a plethora of archival materials from Aratov province, the author provides keen insights as to why the Russian population acted as it did in this turbulent revolutionary era.

Repression in the 57th Special Corps (Mongolian People's Republic) by Vladimir S Mil'bakh

By exploiting hitherto unavailable archival materials, Mil'bakh lifts the veil of secrecy shrouding a wide range of topics associated with Soviet military operations in the Far East in the late 1930s. By analyzing the state of the 57th Special Corps, the author provides unique insights on the nature and impact of Stalin's military purges on the corps in microcosm and, by extention, the Red Army in general and its effects on Soviet military policy and fortunes in the Far East during theSoviet Union's conflict with Imperial Japan.

The Belarus' Intelligentsia during the German-Fascist Occuption (1941-44) by Vladimir I Kuz'menko

Despite its newly won independence from the former Soviet Union, precious little is known or understood about the national traditions or consciousness of Belarus. Indeed, many deny that they exist at all. By examing and analyzing fresh archival materials, Kuz'menko describes the attitudes and actions of Bearus' intelligentsia during the Soviet-German War (1941-45). In doing so, he underscores the ambiguities in the attitudes of Belorussians to Soviet and German alike and demonstrates the immense complexity of the entire question.

Documents on the History of the Lake Camp in the Irkutsk 'Oblast' by Oleg V Afanasov

The publication of Solzhenitsyn's massive Gulag Archipelago (1973) provided a unique, stark and detailed description of the Soviet Union's vast penal camp system. For years, however, this seminal work stood as the sole memorial to the millions who suffered or perished in the Soviet penal system. Afanasov's fresh work, based on in-depth analysis of a single Siberian camp in the Gulg system adds new detail and insight as to how the camp system operated and the effect it had on its victims, even well after Stalin's demise.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 14.4

An Analysis of Soviet, CIS and Russian Miliary Doctrines 1990-2000 by Marcel de Haas

Military doctrine forms an essential part of the security policy of a country. In this article I will analyse six military doctrines, which have been published in the USSR, the CIS and the Russian Federation between 1990 and 2000. I will provide a comparison of these doctrines on themes as the perception of the military-political situation, threats, command and control over the forces, objectives and tasks of military employment and international military cooperation. The future Russian military doctrine will probably put more emphasis on joint military action by the Armed Forces and other troops as well as on training and equipping of the forces aimed at irregular warfare.

The Russian Military in the Wake of the Kursk Tragedy by Walter Parchomenko

Putin's January 2001 ratified military development programme is not a major breakthrough in the long overdue effort to reform Russia's excessive military organization, and to tame the swollen shadow armies, in particular. It is a policy without a strategy. Over a year after the Kursk tragedy, the Russian military is more dissatisfied than ever. Putin's military development plan confirms what servicemen have feared all along: dramatic personnel cuts and painful restructuring are inevitable, and with them severe economic and social dislocation and homelessness. Putin, nevertheless, represents a step forward in the military development process. During the last year, he has demonstrated newfound presidential will, and has broken the political logjam that has stalled military development in recent years. This is a hopeful sign.

The Battle for Mount Pastrik: A Prelimnary Study by Paul C Forage

On 26 May 1999 the Kosovo Liberation Army launched Operation 'Arrow', a ground offensive across Mount Pastrik against Yugoslav army units defending the city of Prizren. NATO used the opportunity to attack the Yugoslav army vehicles, artillery and troops during the largest land battle of the conflict in Kosovo. This study reconstructs major features of the battle on the ground and questions the efficacy of what became NATO's close air support effort to prevent the defeat of of the operation. While the offensive failed to meet its operational objectives, it was an important factor in President Milosevic's decision to withdraw from the province.

Making The Third Man Look Pale: American-Soviet Conflict in Vienna During the Early Cold War in Austria, 1945-1950 by Ralph W Brown III

Following World War II, American-Soviet military relations in Vienna were never more than tolerable and, over time, rapidly declined. Beginning in 1945, US Army efforts to improve the situation in Vienna evoked deep suspicion and resistance on the part of the Soviets. In addition, Soviet black market activities proved endemic, producing a barrier to sound American-Soviet relations. Most troubling, Soviet state security organs sought out and abducted a variety of individuals. By 1949, after the probable Soviet murder of an American government official and Soviet harassment of American operations in the city, the US Army's Counter-Intelligence Corps began to conduct operations aimed at the Soviets. The above difficulties occured at a location that was of secondary importance to the Superpowers. Significance: this essay suggests that in a location where American and Soviet personnel came into direct sustained contact, tensions could only have been avoided with constant pressure from above, and most likely not at all.

Modernizing the Muscovite Military: The Systemic Shock of 1698 by Graeme P Herd

In June 1698, while Peter I was abroad on the Ground Embassy, four strel'tsy regiments garnisoned on the Polish border rose and marched on Moscow; demanding a 'regulation of service'. Although historians of early modern Russia have overlooked this revolt, a re-examination of contemporary published and unpublished accounts calls for a reassessment. This article argues that the strel'tsy revolt was capable of unseating Peter and that only timely intervention by the newly-created guards regiments and their foreign mercenary dominated-officier corps ensured that the rebels did not reach Moscow. It analyses the critical impact of a Scottish mercenary general (Patrick Gordon) in shaping and implementing the response of the Russian military establishment towards the uprising. Lastly, it evaluates the impact of the suppression of the revolt upon the way in which Peter I perceived the modernization of the Moscovite political, economic and military system of governance.

The Soviet Over-sea 1940 Invasion of Finland: Why Did General Pavlov's Ice-borne Attack Succeed? by Carl O Nordling

In 1940 Stalin preferred to end the Winter War without having conquered all of Finland rather than risking landing up in a war with Great Britain and France. Yet he wanted to achieve a propitious frontier for a future attack before signing the peace treaty. This became possible by means of a daring over-ice attack that checkmated the Finnish defense forces. Thereby the Red Army had a definite breakthrough within reach. A detailed analysis of the ice conditions and of Finland's remaining war equipment indictes that the leader of the Soviet attack cannot take much of the credit for the successful operation. The Commander of the Finnish Naval Forces simply failed to use his available means to stop the attack.

Glass-Jawed Goliaths: Red Army Artillery Armored Trains in World War II by Alan R Koenig

By World War II, tracked vehicles and aircraft had almost made armored trains obsolete, but the Soviets employed sound tactics to use them effectively at the front. Addendum I shows that Russian Civil War armored train names reflect Red and White political realities and agendas. It sets the stage for Addendum II, which lists some Soviet armored train names and miscellaneous information thereof, while armored train anatomy is addressed in Addendum III.

Memoirs of the Soviet–German War: Part One, Leningrad 1941-1942 by Evgeniy Moniushko, Junior Lietenant, Red Army (Translated by Olef Sheremet)

Evgenii Moniushki, a teenager during the first year of the terrible siege of Leningrad, provides an intensely human, graphic, and unvarnished portrayal of day-to-day life in the besieged city. Evgenii describes the twin horrors of constant German bombardment from the air and the ground and the famine that gripped the beleaguered city, focusing on the seemingly mundane meaures the population employed to survive. Midst the suffering and privation, Evgenii and his family prevail to exit the city in August 1942 over the 'road of life' across the waters of Lake Ladoga.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 14.3

Perceptions of New Security Risks by Central and Eastern European Populations and their Political Elites By Gábor Stajanovits This article explores perceptions of new security risks held by the public at large and their political elites in a range of countries in the post-Cold War Central and Eastern European region. While it has to be acknowledged that some traditional military risks are still prevalent in the region, this study concentrates on four new non-military security issues that seem to concern both the general population and the political elite. These compromise various risks generated by the complex transition process, by national and ethnic minorities, by migration and by environmental challenges. As regards public perceptions, the study relies on surveys conducted by Gallup and other academic research projects. For highlighting elite perceptions, it evaluates official security documents, such as those defining security concepts and strategies of individual countries in the region. In addition, the study also draws some comparisons between security perceptions in Central and Eastern Europe and Western Europe.

Lost Provinces: Czechs, Sorbs, and the Problem of Lusatia by David Kelly

A little-known aspect of modern Czech history is the Czech attempt to recapature Lusatia, a region between the Elbe and Oder rivers. Populated partly by the Sorbs, a Slavic people, it formed part of the Czech Lands between the fouteenth and seventeenth centuries. After its loss by the Czech during the Thirty Years War, the region passed to Saxony and Prussia. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a small group of Czech scholars campaigned for Lusatia's return to Czech rule, on the basis of Czech dynastic claims and a somewhat contrived idea of Pan-Slav brotherhood with the Sorbs.

Ukrainian Armed Forces: Defence Expenditure and Military Reform by Ben Lombardi

As one of the largest military establishments in post-Cold War Europe, the Ukrainian Armed Forces have increasingly become the topic of discussions at NATO, as well as in the Ukraine's foreign bilateral relations. These talks have included the restructuring and downsizing of the armed forces' establishment inherited from the Soviet-era. Military reform has, until recently, confronted many serious obstacles. Some of these have been political, while others, such as the country's extreme financial uncertainty, are more resistant to rapid change. This article looks at the organisation of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, examines the current military reform programme, and raises some of the more important problems associated with restructuring.

The Campaign for the Caves: The Battles for Zhawar in the Soviet-Afghan War by Lester W Grau and Ali Ahmad Jalali

The battles for Zhawar were fought to cripple guerrilla logistics, but evolved into tests of the legitimacy of the Afghan communist regime and the Mujahideen resistance. The battles exposed serious deficiencies on both sides as the guerrillas conducted a fixed, positional defense and the Soviets and Afghans attempted a major mechanized assult more in keeping with European terrain than the rugged mountainous terrain around Zhawar.

Georgian Servicemen in the Polish Armed Forces (1922-39) by Andriy Rukkas

In the wake of the reemergence of an independent Georgian Republic after the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, this article presents unique informaion concerning the history of the earlier Georgian State, which existed briefly during the period of the Russian Civil War. It relates to the brief attempt by Poland to support the Georgian military by training Georgian Army officers in the Polish military. This article then tracks the performance and fate of these Georgian officers (completely listed as of 20 April 1934) as they loyally served Poland up to the time when it fell victim to Hitler's Wehrmacht and Stalin's Red Army in 1939.

Was There any Threat to Leningrad from the North in 1941? by N I Baryshnikov

Exploring hitherto classified sources, this article provides a fresh examination of the diplomatic and military circumstances surround Finnish participation in Hitler's war against the Soviet Union in 1941. By doing so, it challenges the widely accepted arguments that Finnish partcipation in the war on Germany's side was at best only lukewarm and that Finnish wartime objectives were limited to regaining territories lost by Finland in the 1939-40 Winter War.

Memories of World War II: Notes on the Polish Campaign (1939) and the War with Finland (1939-1940) by M I Lukinov (translated by Olef Sheremet)

Mikhail Ivanovich Lukinov is a Red Army veteran who served in the Polish War (September 1939), the Soviet-Finnish War (1939-1940), and the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) and survived to write of his experiences. This memoir deals with his army service during the Polish and Finnish Wars. Lukinov began his service in the 62d Rifle Division's 306th Rifle Regiment. The 62d Rifle Division was formed in Belaia Tserkov and Fastoc regions of the Kiev Military District in August and September 1939 and later participated in the invasion of Eastern Poland. A People's Commissariat of Defense directive dated 18 January 1940 transfered the division to the 13th Army on the Karelian Isthmus. The division arrived in the Karelian Isthmus on 3 February 1940 and on 17 February was transferred from the 13th Army's reserve at Lipola to the 13th Rifle Corps, which deployed the division to Kangaspelto by 20 February. The 62d Rifle Division participated in offensive operations toward Volossula on 19 February and Kelia on 20 February. From 21 February it was located in the Mutarants region. The division entrained on 21 March 1940 and returned to the Kiev Military District.

Documentary Essay: Forgotten Battles of the German-Soviet War (1941-45), Part 7: The Summer Campaign (12 May-July 1942) by David M Glantz

Abstracts of articles in Issue 14.2

Russian Nuclear Command and Control: Mission Malaise? By Stephen J. Cimbala

Since the end of the Cold War, Russian nuclear command and control has been subjected to technical, organizational and political shocks that have led some observers to question whether it might, under some conditions, provoke the very war it is designed to help deter. This article considers some issues pertinent to the preservation of stable Russian nuclear C3 under peacetime and crisis conditions.

The Early Development of Russia’s Ballistic Missile Defence System by Victor Gobarev

The study is a rare attempt to explore the early history of Russian ballistic missile defence on the basis of recently declassified Russian archival documents, from first efforts to research the possibility to create a missile defence to large-scale efforts to build a national missile defence prior to signing the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 1972. Analyzed are the reasons for Soviet successes and failures in creating, testing and implementing some important elements of ballistic missile defence. Soviet motives and decision to sign up to the ABM Treaty are explored. A special chapter is dedicated to the role of the Soviet leaders in Russia's road to ballistic missile defence.

‘It’s the Thought Process that First Went to War’ – Marshall I. Sergeyev, General A. Kvashnin and the Experience of World War II by Steven J Main

A recent statement made by Russia’s First Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Colonel General V. Manilov, confirmed that there had been a ‘conflict’ between the present Chief of the General Staff, General A. Kvashin, and the newly retired Minister of Defence, Marshal I. Sergeyev, over the whole issue of the future course of military reform. This was clearly demonstrated in an article, ostensibly designed to examine the role of strategic leadership in the Armed Forces of the USSR during the Soviet-German War (1941-45), but, as had happened in the past, the article was a none too subtle attack on the military reform process under the leadership of Marshal Sergeyev.

The Downfall of the ‘Iron Commissar’, N.I Ezhov, 1938-1940 by Michael Parrish

Following his removal in late 1938 as the People’s Commissar of Internal Affairs (NKVD), N.I. Ezhov became perhaps the best known non-person in Soviet history. This article based on the latest findings traces the downfall of the chief executioner of the Great Terror.

Memoirs of World War II: Memoirs by G V Shutz

Shutz's unique memoirs are those of a common Soviet soldier who was conscripted into the Red Army in January 1942 and served throughout more than three years of war in Red Army antiaircraft artillery units. His service carried him from Stalingrad through Leningrad to Berlin in 1945. He shares with the journal's readers his experiences in a war during which an appallingly few soldiers and junior officers were able or willing to record what occurred. This memoir, which is marked by its refreshing candor, begins what hopefully will be a long series of similarly valuable memoirs written by soldiers who fought in the hitherto faceless Red Army.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 14.1

Concept, Algorithm, Indecision: Why Military Reform has Failed in Russia since 1992 by Christopher C Locksley

This article seeks to analyze why military reform has failed in Russia since 1992. Firstly, the article discusses the Russian conceptualization of military reform in terms of the methodological approach, key objectives and concrete targets for reform. The paper then proceeds to describe the contemporary status of military reform in Russia. It moves on to provide an evaluation and explanation of why military reform has such a disappointing record in Russia since the fall of the Soviet Union. Finally, and far more controversially, the author will present a case for consideration which points to deeper socio-cultural and intellectual reasons in Russia which militate against the success of any enlightened and modernizing reformist project.

Loyal to the End: The Russian Legion of Honor in the Great War, 1917–1918 by Jamie H Cockfield

In a negotiated exchange of men for war material, the Tsarist government sent two brigades to fight on the Western Front on the side of their French ally in 1916. After the revolution occurred in Russia, the two brigades mutinied and were transferred to a remote corner of France, where the mutiny was suppressed. After stability was achieved, a number of loyal Russian soldiers asked to return to the front as the Russian Legion. The motive of these men was solely to honour their nation’s commitment to France, and they fought well to the end of the war, suffering heavy casualties.

KGB General Naum Isakovich Eitingon by Ilya I Kuznetsov

Throughout their long and brutal existence, the Soviet intelligence and security services produced numerous shadowy figures whose work accorded those services a unique effectiveness. This article lifts the veil of secrecy from one of the most ruthless and merciless of those figures, N.I. Eitingon. During his over 30-year career as a security operative, Eitingon was involved in a virtual catalogue of the security and intelligence services’ most infamous exploits spanning the globe from Mexico to China. In peacetime he was instrumental in Soviet espionage activities in China, the US, and Western Europe and in the assassination of Stalin’s arch enemy Leon Trotsky. During wartime Eitingon was instrumental in the formation of reconnaissance and diversionary forces, the forerunners of the infamous post-war Spetnaz. Fittingly, after the war’s end, Eitingen fell victim to the very security organs he so ruthlessly and efficiently served.

Roads and Days: the Memoirs of a Red Army Translator by Elena Rzhevskaia

Over 50 years since its end, historians are finally able to begin exploring the vast panorama of the Soviet Union’s Great Patriotic War against Nazi Germany to reveal what actually occurred in that most terrible of Twentieth Century struggles. Despite this prodigious work, however, the human face of that long and costly war has largely defied description. This memoir, written by a Red Army translator and a woman, abruptly reverses that trend. Rzhevskaia’s wartime service spanned over four years of combat at the front, carried her from the depths of defeat before Moscow to victory at Berlin, and burned onto her memory countless devastated villages and thousands of bewildered civilians savaged by the rigours of war. She has shaped her starkly simple combat notes and keen perceptions of both the tangible and intangible into a poignant description of that which cannot be described. What results is sheer poetry hat captures the immensity of the human dimension of the hitherto faceless war.

Soviet Generals Condemned after Release from German Captivity: The Vlasov Generals, Part 2 by A A Maslov

This, the second article in an ongoing series on the fate of the Red Army general officers capture by the German Army during World War II, is perhaps the most revealing. For half a century since war’s end the name General Vlasov has evoked hatred on the part of the Soviet regime and scorn on the part of citizens of the Soviet. A prominent Red Army wartime her, Vlasov, the then commander of the 2d Shock Army, fell captive to the Germans on one of the Red Army’s worst wartime debacles. While in captivity, Vlasov went over to the German side and attempted to raise an anti-Bolshevik army (the Russian Liberation Army) to join the fight against Stalin’s regime. Exploiting new archival materials, for the first time Alexander Maslov peels away persisting myths to document the military careers and wartime political and military activities of Vlasov and those who joined his cause. He records the grim fate of the general and those senior officers who participated in the stillborn Crusade against Bolshevism only to perish at the hands of Stalin’s security organs.

DOCUMENTARY ESSAY: Forgotten Battles of the German–Soviet War (1941–45), Part 6: The Winter Campaign (5 December 1941–April 1942): The Crimean Counteroffensive and Reflections by David M Glantz

Review Article: Misreading The Soviet Threat by Walter C Uhler

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 13.4

Poland: Poland, Trying to Punch Above Its Weight Class in NATO by Amy McAuliffe

Poland has both the potential and desire to become a significant military contributor to NATO. The Polish military, however, is unlikely to become a major player in NATO in the next 15 years because financial constraints will impede progress in two key areas: contributing to NATO air operations and building a Western-style military. At the same time, however, Poland seems poised to meet two other important benchmarks shared by NATO’s top European contributors: contributing to Alliance ground or peacekeeping operations and building a political power base at NATO. Given this progress, Poland will seek to become an active and powerful Alliance member, suggesting that Polish membership has important implications for NATO’s future, as well as Polish relations with the US and European Union.

Ukraine: The Non-Military Security Forces of Ukraine by Taras Kuzio

Post Soviet states, such as Ukraine, have expanded the number, type and size of their non-military security forces to the extent that they now are larger than the armed forces. Traditional studies of civil–military relations have not covered these non-military forces, which leads to a disjointed picture of security forces in states in the throes of democratisation, such as Ukraine. By studying these forces we can understand the threat perceptions of the ruling elites and how these have changed from external to internal. The study of these forces also shows us how the forces inherited from the former USSR were nationalised and integrated into the newly independent state and how other forces were created or expanded in the course of state building.

War in Chechnya: The ‘Counter-Terrorist Operation’in Chechnya: ‘Information Warfare’ Aspects by Graeme P Herd

This article focuses on the information warfare aspects of the Second Russo-Chechen campaign (1999–). It demonstrates Russia’s enhanced information warfare fighting capability and effectiveness. However, the creation and consolidation of a psychological environment in favour of the campaign, the imposition of an ‘information blockade’ and federal media management reorganisation was countered by both Chechen responses (particularly the exploitation of the Internet as an ‘information weapon’) and internal Russian press criticism of the war. It concludes by arguing that the Russo-Chechen ‘information war’ provides a leitmotif for contemporary Russian security politics: it resonates and reflects larger trends in Russia’s systemic transformation.

Foreign Intervention and the Russian Civil War: End of the Great Game: British Intervention in Russia’s Southern Borderlands and the Soviet Response by David Kelly

During the period 1918–20, the British launched several small-scale military interventions into Soviet Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Although pre-1991 Soviet historiography portrayed these episodes as attempts to overthrow nascent Bolshevik rule in these regions, Britain’s primary goal was to shield India, initially from the Central Powers during the last stages of World War I, and, later, from Russian Communist intrigues. Interestingly, the British did not make a serious effort to support the national aspirations of the non-Russian peoples in these regions, even though this strategy might have undermined Soviet control there.

World War II: Red Sun: A German Airborne Raid, May 1944 by Charles D Melson

German airborne employment after the large-scale invasion of Crete in 1941 was confined to battalion-size actions for limited objectives. A unique operation, both for obscurity and daring, was the effort to oust Balkan guerrilla chief Josip Broz, ‘Marshal Tito’. With Operation Knight’s Move, the late Yugoslav president’s career might have ended on his 52d birthday, 25 May 1944. On that day, Axis forces executed an airborne raid on partisan supreme headquarters at Drvar, Bosnia that almost succeeded in getting Tito. Today, it can provide an example of using light infantry in low-intensity or special operations, with consequences similar to those experienced by Americans in Somalia against irregular opponents.

Documentary Essay:

Forgotten Battles of the German–Soviet War (1941–45), Part 5: The Winter Campaign (5 December 1941–April 1942): The Leningrad Counteroffensive by David M Glantz

Book Reviews Index to Volume 13 (2000)

Abstracts of articles in Issue 13.3

ARMS CONTROL

Invisible Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Soviet Union’s BW Programme and its Implications for Contemporary Arms Control by Anthony Rimmington

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the Soviet Union secretly pursued an offensive biological weapons programme which gave it overwhelming superiority with regard to these weapons of mass destruction over the United States and other Western countries. This article traces the origins of the Soviet BW effort and it is within this historical context that explanations are sought for the expansion of the programme in the 1970s. It is argued that in the light of the Soviet experience, any future protocol to the Biological Weapons Convention should incorporate mechanisms for highly intrusive inspections of both defence installations and ostensibly civil bio-pharmaceutical facilities.

STRATEGY

The ‘Brain’ of the Russian Army: The Centre for Military-Strategic Research, General Staff (TsVSI GSh), 1985–2000 by Steven J Main

Based on an analysis of a range of open source materials, this article details and examines the creation and work of one of the most important military-strategic research centres currently operating in the Russia, namely the Centre for Military-Strategic Research, General Staff, (TsVSI GSh). Staffed largely by senior members of Russia’s Armed Forces, the Centre plays a significant role not only in formulating key security policy documents like the country’s Military doctrine, the National Security Concept, etc., but also in helping to improve the level of the professional debate surrounding the construction and future direction of the Russian Armed Forces.

MILITARY REFORM

The State of Ukraine’s Armed Forces and Military Reform by Walter Parchomenko

This article discusses the socio-economic crisis facing Ukraine’s armed forces. It argues that real military reform, defined to include Ukraine’s parallel ‘shadow’ armies, is impossible if the current competition for scarce resources between Military of Defense (MOD) forces and non-MOD security forces is allowed to continue, and that without reform the armed forces will continue to slip deeper into chaos. The harsh realities facing the Ukrainian armed forces are examined, and Defense Minister Kuzmuk’s current course of military reform is discussed, highlighting recent accomplishments and key deficiencies. Finally, prospects for future reform are considered, and recommendations offered for US policy towards Ukraine.

PARTNERSHIP FOR PEACE From Confrontation to Cooperation from the Sea: A Chronological Survey of US Marine Activities and Training in the Partnership for Peace Program and with the Former Soviet Union, 1993–99 by Leo J Daugherty

GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR Summer 1941 by Anders Frankson

The Red Army suffered terrible defeats at the hands of the Wehrmacht in the summer of 1941. Official Soviet History did not acknowledge that the Red Army in fact had a significant numerical superiority when it came to tanks and aircraft. The article stresses the importance that we in our assessment of the 1941 struggle take a look at both sides when we make our evaluation of the situation. How should we make a proper strength ratio for 1941? Also that we try to identify the significant factors behind the Soviet defeat.

DOCUMENTARY ESSAY

Forgotten Battles of the German–Soviet War (1941–45), Part 4: The Winter Campaign (5 December 1941–April 1942: The Demiansk Counteroffensive by David M Glantz

Abstracts of articles in Issue 13.2

COLD WAR

Year of Maximum Danger? The 1983 ‘War Scare’ and US–Soviet Deterrence By Stephen J Cimbala

The Cuban missile crisis is rightly regarded as the most dangerous confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union of the Cold War. Another less remarked but perhaps equally dangerous period preceded the ‘war scare’ of 1983. Relations between the American and Soviet governments deteriorated gradually between 1979 and 1983, on account of the cumulative disagreements and misperceptions growing out of several episodes. Some Soviet leaders convinced themselves that there was a nontrivial likelihood of a US nuclear first strike in the near future, and Soviet intelligence agencies were tasked to anticipate it. This study examines the historical, political and military-strategic aspects of the ‘war scare’ crisis, including attributes of US and Soviet military forces in 1983 that might have contributed to higher levels of anxiety about surprise attack.

NATO EXPANSION TO THE EAST

NATO’s Visegrad Allies: The First Test in Kosovo by Ryanc Henderickson

At the NATO’s Madrid conference in 1997, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland were asked to join Europe’s premier military alliance. In order to gain admission, these states engaged in extensive lobyying efforts and made considerable diplomatic promises to convince full members of their shared values and willingness to assist in NATO’s post-Cold War mission. However, only days after their membership was ratified, the alliance initiated a bombing campaign on Kosovo. This article examines the contributions of the Visegrad states in this operation, and finds much disparity in the diplomatic and military support provided to NATO. The findings have implications not only for NATO’s ability to provide for European security in the future, but also for Eastern European states and others who seek full membership in the alliance.

WAR IN CHECHNYA

Burning Corpses in the Streets: Russia’s Doctrinal Flaws in the 1995 Fight for Grozny by John R Pilloni

Russia’s capture of the Chechen capital of Grozny in the winter of 1995 proved to be a Pyrrhic victory. Despite having a strategic doctrine that incorporated the tenets of measured response and precision fires, Russia’s armed forces were incapable of conducting operations in cities, without resorting to the indiscriminate use of massive firepower. As a result, Russia’s merciless pounding of Grozny only served to solidify Chechen resolve to resist, while eroding its own public support for the war. As long as the Russian military fails to translate its strategic doctrine into operational doctrine and tactics, Russia will continue to have difficulty translating its tactical victories into strategic ones.

THE INTERWAR PERIOD

When an Army becomes ‘Merely a Burden’: Romanian Defense Policy and Strategy (1918–1941) by Alexender Statiev

This article discusses Romanian defense policy in the interwar period and investigates the specific strategic problems of a small state caught in crossfire between two great powers. It analyses the circumstances of Romania’s political reorientation from the western Allies towards the Axis as well as various aspects of cooperation between the Romanian and German armies on the eve of Romania’s entrance in the war. It examines Romanian military doctrine and demonstrates that the poor efficiency of the Romanian Army derived from both the government’s neglect and from mistakes made by the Romanian General Staff. The frantic attempts to reform the army on the eve of the war with the help of German instructors were frustrated because it was impossible to radically improve the army’s efficiency in the time frame allotted, and also because the German leadership did not consider these reforms necessary. The reforms were further impeded by the policy of the Wehrmacht High Command that consciously misled the Romanian General Staff about the nature of forthcoming operations.

GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

Tried for Treason Against the Motherland:Soviet Generals Condemned after Release from German Captivity by AA Maslov This, the third article in an ongoing series on the fate of Red Army general officers captured by the Germans during World War II, is perhaps the most depressing. In it Maslov relates how an ungrateful state condemned for treason against their Homeland many of those who had served it loyally both in combat and in German prisoner-of-war camps. By exploiting unprecedented archival materials, Maslov demonstrates how Stalin and Soviet security organs condemned and shot many of the returnee- generals. Many were executed on trumped up charges, as scapegoats for the real crimes committed by Stalin and the military Soviet leadership during the tragic initial period of the war. Coincidentally, Maslov presents a unique glimpse of the social history of the pre-war Red Army officer corps.

DOCUMENTARY ESSAY

Forgotten Battles of the German–Soviet War (1941–45), Part 3 – The Winter Campaign 5 December 1941 to April 1942: The Moscow Counteroffensive by David M Glatz

Abstracts of articles in Issue 13.1

Military Reform and the Russian Air Force 1999 by Charles J Dick

This in-depth analysis of the 1998–99 reforms of Russian airpower looks at its prospects until 2005 and 2010. The Russian Air Force has achieved a simpler and more rationalized command system, together with massive personnel reductions. No fewer than 44,000 have been made redundant in less than a year. over 600 aircraft have been released for sale. However, this streamlined force's future viability depends on the fortunes of the Russian Federation. An annex gives the Air Force's current order of battle.

Human Rights in the Russian Armed Forces and the Threat of Catastrophic Political Scenarios by Christopher C Locksley

'… The armed forces will follow whoever pays them …'
(Statement by a retired Colonel of Soviet and Russian Air Defence Forces made to the author during a visit to Moscow in 1998 at the conclusion of a European Union (Technical Assistance to the CIS) funded military education project).
This article argues that the parlous condition of the Russian Armed Forces in relation to human rights is fuelling the emergence of an array of catastrophic political scenarios which may come to fruition in the near future. The West can only avert this situation by initiating a fundamental reform of its aid strategy. First, the monograph makes an assessment of the compatibility of service in the forces with the enjoyment of human rights. It then evaluates the contempary human rights performance of the Russian military before outlining a range of possible catastrophic scenarios. It concludes with some practical solutions.

Weapons of Mass Destruction Brain Drain from Russia: Problems and Perspectives by Maria Katsva

Problems of brain drain along with problems of intangible technologies transfers have become some of the most acute problems today. Nobody has found a way yet to prevent intangible technologies transfers since any limitation in migration and travel conflicts with democratic values. For Russia the situation is the most problematic. Increasing economic collapse, a huge amount of unemployed scientists, and a lack of legislative enforcement makes the brain drain massive and uncontrolled. The brain drain from the defense industry, particularly of experts who worked previously for weapons of mass destruction programs, is an acute danger. The rogue states that try to set up their own nuclear military programs are looking for these scientists and invite them since it is not enough to steal nuclear materials to create a nuclear bomb. The rogue states mostly lack skills and knowledge. Brain drain from Russia is a growing threat to nonproliferation. However, as there are no statistics, there is a lot of speculation on this issue. This article addresses measures, which could prevent scientists from leaving Russia and measures that already have been undertaken. It discusses whether scientists need to leave the country to assist rogue states, or they could do it from their own homes; furthermore this article tries to compile statistics on the weapons of mass destruction brain drain.

The Naval Theaters in Soviet Grand Strategy During the Interwar Period by Gunnar Ĺselius

This article examines the role of naval theaters in Soviet grand strategy during the interwar period, as described in various strategic assessments from that period. In contrast to the situation during the Cold War, Soviet naval efforts were then mainly concentrated on the Baltic, where the protection of Leningrad and the Red Army's need for support seemed to require a comparatively strong fleet. The Northern Theater, although important, was too remote to become a decisive area of operations. In the Black Sea and Caspian Theaters, the position of the likely enemies was deemed insecure, therefore the Soviets could easily gain local supremacy and then stay on the defensive. In the Pacific, the threat from Japanese aggression was grave, but Anglo-American influence for a long time appeared to be a balancing factor. There was a certain conjecture between the views expressed in strategic assessments during the period and the shifts between various schools in Soviet naval thinking: the 'Old School' of the 1920s, the 'Young School' of the late 1920s–early 1930s and the 'Soviet School' of the late 1930s.

The Battle of Borodino: The Fall of the Grand Redoute by Vladimir Zemtsov

No period in Imperial Russian history has been more dramatic than the Russian Army's defeat of Napoleon's Grand Army during the so-called Fatherland [Otechestvenaia] War of 1812. No battle in that short but decisive war has been more famed than the struggle that took place on the fields of Borodino just west of Moscow. Scholars from every nation whose forces fought in the battle have analyzed its conduct and singled out those who distinguished themselves in it. Understandably, their accounts have varied wildly regarding who did what to whom, when , and why? Zemtsov exploits a wealth of memoirs, archival materials, and all existing literature on the subject to reassess thoroughly and skillfully the most vital episode in the battle, the storming of the Great Redoubt. By doing so, he reaches fresh conclusions regarding the true nature and consquences of this famed engagement.

World War II Through the Prism of a Christian Weltanschauung by A P Reent and A E Lysenko (translated by Harold S Orenstein)

Despite instances in history where religious fever contributed to conflict, war and the moral and ethical tenets of most religion are, by their very nature, inherently incompatible. If this is true, as Reent and Lysenko argue, than there is no more important element in the national life of any state today than a healthy and vigorous spiritual life of its people. This is particularly true in an era when the means and consequences of potential war have become so terrible and threaten the existence of mankind as a whole. The two authors reach their conclusions by carefully examining the role of religion in the Soviet Union and its Ukrainian republic during World War II.

Ethnic Minorities and Warfare at the Arctic Front 1939–45 by Waling T Gorter-Gronvik and Mikhail N Suprun

One of the enticing but elusive questions associated with the Red Army's performance during World WarII is the role the Soviet Union's many minority ethnic groups played in the achievement of military victory. By virtue of the immense number who served, Russian historians have found it impossible to ignore the contributions of Tadzhiks Kazakhs, Georgians, Armenians, and others who suffered for the Soviet Union. The same, however, cannot be said of hundreds of soldiers from more obscure ethnic groups in the Soviet State. This seminal article briefly surveys the role that the Arctic peoples – the Komis, Saamis, Nenets, Hanti, Mansi, and Karelians – performed in the service of the Red Army. While noting their contributions to the war effort, it underscores the fierce efforts of these proud people to assert their independence in the face of the awesome power of the Soviet State.

Civil Aviation in Siberia and the Far East During the War (1941–45) by E V Altunin (translated by Harold S Orenstein)

While many aspects of the Soviet Union's Great Patriotic War remain obscure, nothing has been more overlooked than the contribution to the war effort made by the populations of remote regions of the country such as Siberia, Transbaikal, and the Far East. In this case, the Altunin draws upon unprecedented archival materials to spell out the contributions that the airmen, aviation specialists, and the aviation industry in general in the regions made to the Soviet Union's victory in the war.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 12.4

Soviet Policy toward China: Developing Nuclear Weapons 1949–1969 by Viktor M Gobarev

The year 1999 has seen increasingly heated debates regarding the issue of alleged Chinese nuclear espionage in the United States. These debates focus on the issue of whether the Chinese simply outsmarted the US government or whether the Clinton administration or its representatives deliberately leaked classified information on nuclear weapons and missile technology to the Chinese government or its agents. As context, it may be both timely and useful to examine at what history has to tell us about such cases in the past. If this is so, then no case has been more extensive, appropriate, and illustrative of this process than the one involving Chinese-Soviet nuclear cooperation, which extended from the end of the 1940s to the early 1960s. If this case is apropos, then the central questions are, ‘What nuclear secrets, if any, did the Chinese steal from the Soviets?’ and ‘What secrets, if any, did the Soviet Union itself transfer to China?’ These and other relevant issues are the central focus of this article.

Back to the Future? Tolstoy and Post-Communist Russian Military Politics by John P Moran

Applying Zhukov’s Command Heritage to Military Training and Reform in Today’s World by General M A Gareev (translated by Robert R Love)

Life Experience: Seven-Months at the Russian Academy of Sciences’ NATO Documentation Centre by Jenni Bennett The Soviet Military Advisors in Mongolia (1921–39) by Ilya I Kuznetsov

Military advisors from Russia played an important role in creation and development of the Mongolian Army. The first military advisers in Mongolia were the commanders of 5th Army, which fought in the civil war from the Volga up to Lake Baikal in the Russian Civil War: It Liyatte, Litvinstev, Kosich, Sorkin, Sheko, Pokus, Kangelari. They helped in creation of the Mongolian Army, which had defeated the army of Baron Ungern. Military advisors and instructors in Mongolia became especially active after 1925, when Red Army units were removed from Mongolia. At this time here especially appreciable were L. Vainer, K. Rokossovsky, V. Sudets, V. Gordov, K. Zimin. They helped to transform the Mongolian Army into a modern mechanized force. According to the Protocol on mutual aid between USSR and Mongolia in March 1936 the Red Army again entered Mongolia, the new groups of advisers and instructors included: I. Pliev, M. Tikhonov, V. Panyukov, I. Nikitin etc. Due to their activity the power of the Mongolian Army has increased which in 1939 together with Red Army successfully acted against the Japanese armies in the Nomonhan (Khalkin-Gol) frontier war

Falcons Or Kites? The Red Army Air Force in the Soviet-Finnish War by Pavel Aptekar’ (translated by Harold S Orenstein)

Forgotten Battles of the German–Soviet War (1941–45), Part I by David M Glantz

For over 50 years, major gaps have existed in the historical record of operations on the German-Soviet front during World War II. This has been so largely because archival evidence has been lacking on the Soviet side regarding the Soviet High Command’s (Stavka) strategic intent and the Red Army’s performance in operations that generally failed. It is indeed sad but true that failed operations often vanish from history without a trace. Unless archival data exists about them, historians can scarcely detect or reconstruct their futile course. This is especially the case in the summer-fall campaign of 1941, when the brilliance of German Operation ‘Barbarossa’ eclipsed the frequent but feeble Soviet attempts to thwart the German juggernaut. Today, however, it is finally possible to reconstruct the bitter experiences the Red Army suffered while it attempted to counter Operation 'Barbarossa'. We can do so, first, and with limited certitude, by more thorough analysis of German archival materials and the existing voluminous Soviet secondary literature. More important still, we can do so today by exploiting the increasing flow of released Soviet archival materials, which, for the first time, now include Stavka and front orders, instructions, and directives, whose release in previous years was strictly limited or prohibited outright. This article begins a long-term effort to reveal the existence of many forgotten, covered up, or simply unknown military operations, whose absence from the historical record belies their real or potential strategic or operational importance. While doing so, this article and the entire ensuing series will rely heavily on archival documents and maps from the period.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 12.3

Russia–NATO Relations after the Kosovo Crisis: Strategic Implications by Victor Gobarev

The Evolution of Ukrainian Foreign and Security Policy, 1990–1994 by Roman Wolczuk

On independence in 1991, Ukraine's foreign and security policy was based on four commitments – non-bloc status, non-nuclear status, neutrality and independent bilateral ties – as outlined in the Declaration of Ukrainian Sovereignty announced a year earlier. This article argues that while non-bloc status and neutrality were achieved quickly if not painlessly, there was vacillation on the implementation of the commitment to denuclearization because of Russian hegemonic tendencies, a disiniterested West, and the perceived inappropriateness of the policy. Only with the input of the United States was denuclearization finally achieved. The article concludes that this established a foundation for future successes in Ukrainian foreign and security policy such as the eventual establishment of harmonious bilateral ties with Russia.

Moscow's Secret Initiation of the Azeri–Armenian Conflict (A Study of Divide-and-Rule Policy in Modern History) by Igor Nolyain

The article is devoted to the Russian policy toward non-Russian nationalities and ethnic minorities. It demonstrates that Russian authorities on the eve of the twenty-first century did not abandon the imperial policy and continue to treat minorities as the old Russia did in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By examining bits and pieces of information scattered through Western and Russian press and many memoirs, the author discovered that the alleged spontaneous ethnic clashes around Russia were organized by the Kremlin and executed by its imperial forces in pursuit of a divide-and-rule policy. The article reveals the details of this policy and brings to light what Moscow conducts underground and in total secrecy.

The Soviet–Afghan Conflict of 1925–26 over the Island of Urta-Tugai by Sergei Borisovich Panin (translated by Harold S Orenstein)

Afghanistan has long figured in the foreign policy of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. Readers are likely familiar with the long Russian-British competition over Afghanistan during the nineteenth century and the tremendously adverse impact of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan during the twentieth century. In both of these cases, Russian and Soviet policies had immense international implications. Few, however, are aware of the Soviet-Afghan border disputes of the 1920s, which had both internal ramifications as the Soviet dealt with the Basmachi insurrection in Uzbekistan and external ramification regarding Soviet relations with Britain. Panin's article finally lifts the veil on this chapter of Soviet foreign policy and, while doing so, provides a glimpse of Stalin's pragmatism in foreign policy.

Soviet Tank Operations in the Spanish Civil War by Steven J Zaloga

Although often cited as 'the proving ground for World War II', the lessons of the Spanish Civil War have been misunderstood. This account, the first to use an extensive collection of recently released Soviet military archival material, examines the use of tanks by the Soviet-backed Republican forces. it argues that the conflict did have important lessons in tank technology and tactics for the Red Army, but that many of the lessons were distorted as a consequence of the Purges, or ignored due to deep-seated shortcomings.

The Would-Be Führer: General Radola Gajda of Czechoslovakia by David Kelly

Radola Gajda (1892–1948), a hero of the Czechoslovak Legion, was the leader of the only significant Czech fascist party in interwar Czechoslovakia. After initially becoming a general in the army of the new Czechoslovak state, he ran afoul of President T. G. Masaryk, Foreign Minister Edvard Beneš, and the Castle political faction they led. Because of Gajda's fascist sympathies and actual contacts with Czech fascists, the Castle drove him out of the Army in 1926 using very dubious methods. During the rest of the interwar period, Gajda tried unsuccessfully to make fascism a viable political force among the Czechs.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 12.2

Soviet and Russian Peacekeeping 1948–1998: Historical Overview and Assessment by Anthony Kellett

In recent years, peacekeeping has involved up to 11,000 Russian personnel at any one time, and thus represents a significant new chapter in Russia's military history. It also provides a valuable gauge of Moscow's foreign and security policy and of its military capabilities. This article provides descriptive accounts of each operation in which Soviet and Russian troops have been involved: 13 UN missions (excluding successor missions and airlift support to 3 other UN operations), the multinational force in Bosnia, and four regional missions in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Details of deployment, command and control, peacekeeping activities, performance, and associated political developments are provided. In addition, the article assesses Russian peacekeeping practice in the context of international standards, in terms of consent of the parties, impartiality, use of force, numerical preponderance, command, and so on.

Ukraine's New Time of Troubles by James Sherr

By means of vigorous cooperation with NATO and a shrewd, 'multi-vectored' foreign policy, Ukraine has done much to develop an independent identity since 1991. Yet these successes have done little to improve the country's samostiynist', its ability to 'stand on its feet'. The dominance of financial-industrial clans and Soviet era dependencies not only risk making an unreformed economy unreformable, but also endanger national security. Western economic assistance (and NATO's programmes of cooperation) have addressed these problems superficially, whereas the European Union's approach to enlargement could shut Ukraine out of Europe. Such an outcome could have adverse consequences in Russia and Central Europe.

War and Geopolitics – Really Together Again? by Filip Tunjic

Geopolitics and war are complementary terms, unified processes. Against the idea of deterritorialized world in the fourth 'new world order' stay basic unchangeable constants: space as a given, territorially as behaviour, and territory as the central value through which other values of political being could be expressed. Space persists to be territorialized and, especially Euro-Asian land, divided into geostrategical realms, geopolitical regions, and states and regions 'in between', gateways, shatterbelts etc. However, actual re-ordering means keeping attainable in the nick of time in one way or another – 'peaceful', 'peacekeeping', 'peacemaking'. It really seems that the geopolitics and war are returned together, exactly like they should be.

Current Czech Defense Policy by René Nastoupil

Primary attention is paid to measures that are associated with the accession of the Czech Republic to NATO, including preparation of the appropriate legislative framework, preparation of basic defense policy documents, and the development of the armed forces and their active participation in peace operations. Also covered in detail are such issues as the preparation of new Czech defense laws, security strategy, military strategy, concepts for the development of the defense sector, and the involvement of the armed forces in peace support operations.

Company Choir of Terror: The Military Council of the 1930s – The Red Army Between the XVIIth and XVIIIth Party Congresses by Frank Schauff (translated by Stephanie McGinn)

In a majority of studies, the Terror of the Red Army has been reduced to the trial against the army command on the grounds of the 'Tukhachevskii affair'. To this day, there has been no extensive investigation into this secret trial and its connection with the changes in the Red Army. The lack of knowledge of central documents from the trial itself has played a crucial role in this, in addition to the otherwise very fragmentary research on the Red Army up to now. In the following, new light is shed on the events in the army based on Red Army documents and, above all, based on transcripts of the proceedings of the Military Council under the People's Commissar of Defense during 1934–39.

The Forgotten Missiles: The Soviet Air Force and Nuclear GLCMs by Steven J Zaloga

Ground Launch Cruise Missiles (GLCM) are the most obscure of the tactical nuclear weapons of the former Soviet Air Force. Deployed in small numbers, they were overshadowed by the Army's tactical ballistic missiles. Yet they present an intriguing mystery, as they represented the most numerous nuclear weapon deployed on Cuba during the 1962 Missile Crisis. Their presence on Cuba was not recognized by US intelligence at the time, nor in most accounts of the crisis since. This article provides the first detailed account in English of their development and deployment.

Forgiven by Stalin - Soviet Generals Who Returned From German Prisons in 1941–45 and Who Were Rehabilitated by A A Maslov

For more than half a century immense 'blank spots' have obscured the fate of the millions of Red Army soldiers who perished or were taken captive by the Germans in World War II. The process of filling in these spots, if at all possible, will be daunting. A pioneer in this effort has been Aleksandr Maslov, a young Russian historian, who recently revealed the tragic and often gruesome fate of hundreds of Soviet generals who perished during the war. In this unprecedented article, Maslov turns his jeweler's eye on the fate of Red Army generals taken captive by the Germans, who, uncharacteristically, earned Stalin's forgiveness when they returned from captivity in German concentration camps.

The Ugly Duckling of the Armed Forces: Romanian Armour 1919–41 by Alexander Statiev

This article discusses the place of armour in Romanian doctrine, examines the development of the Romanian armoured forces in the interwar period, analyses the performance of Romanian armour in the first year of war against Russia and reveals the factors that affected this performance. The Romanian Armoured Division was the only Axis armoured formation in the southern quarter of the front between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea in the first stages of Operation 'Barbarossa'. The secondary role of armour in Romanian interwar doctrine resulted in the low level of the personnel's professionalism and the lack of expertise in armour employment among Romanian senior commanders, which led to the virtual destruction of the division within two months of the beginning of the campaign.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 12.1

NATO Enlargement Problems: Military Training and Educational Challenges in Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary: Conclusions and Recommendations by David M Glantz

This, the concluding portion of a three-part assessment of the form and utility of US military assistance to the three new NATO members, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, articulates conclusions and offers recommendations for the future.

An Overview of Civil-Military Relations in Central and Eastern Europe by Ben Lombardi

Encouraging civil-military reform is an important component of Western countries' outreach programmes to Central and Eastern Europe. This article examines the progress so far achieved by organizing the analysis under six general categories: civilian minister of defence; civilian officials in defence ministries; political non-involvement of the military; legislative supervision of defence policy; publicly known budgets and defence policies, and public discussion of defence issues. By surveying developments throughout the region, the article concludes that considerable reform has already been undertaken, though the achievements vary according to the country. As civil-military relations are an ongoing political process, much remains to be done to bring the countries of the region up to generally-recognized Western standards.

Conscripts and the Military Profession in the Czech Republic by Jioí Hodný and Štefan Sarvaš

The article examines attitudes of Czech conscripts towards the military profession. It monitors their willingness to become career soldiers. It found out that as far as career motivation is concerned they prefer occupational incentives while those prefering institutional incentives comprise only a small minority. Among main reasons diverting them from a military career conscripts identified obsolete technology, the military style of thinking and low social prestige of the military profession in the Czech Republic. A substantial percentage of conscripts openly expressed racial and national intolerance. On the other hand, the article found out that the military has the potential to calm down these tensions and become an integrated institution contributing to racial and national understanding.

Some Contemporary Aspects of the Portrayal of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic in the Czech Mass Media by Libor Hlavácek

Russian Dilemmas: The Decline of the Third Rome: Russia's Prospects as a Great Power by C Dale Walton

Russia is in long-term decline and will not regain its former status as great power of the first rank even if its economy and military improve rapidly and substantially. Indeed, two other powers on the Eurasian landmass, the European Union and China, will likely surpass Russia in international standing and secure superpower status in the coming decades. These are trends of significant historical importance for Moscow and for international politics. However, Russia's international decline will not necessarily be catastrophic, and intelligent leadership can probably prevent the breakup of the Russian Federation or similarly extreme outcomes.

Valuing the Human Factor: The Reform of Russian Military Manpower by Stephen Blank

Russia's new military reform aims to modernize the armed forces, create a professional, high-tech military, and defend against threats to its interests. This reform will fail unless it overcomes major obstacles to military reform. These obstacles are a threat assessment that demands defense and deterrence against everyone on all fronts or azimuths, the crisis of state power and defense policy that obstructs democratization and a coherent policy process, and the continuing Tsarist 'regimental economy' that leaves soldiers to the mercy of officers, and facilitates the military's corruption and brutalization. Until Russia overcomes these obstacles, military or democratic reform will not succeed, nor will Russia be truly secure.

Soviet Union and Afghanistan: Afghanistan: The Decline of Soviet Military Strategy and Political Status by A Z Hilali

Afghanistan is a tribal, religious and traditional country and has always resisted foreign domination. The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan provoked the Afghans to liberate the country from Soviet occupation. They have proved themselves a hard nut to crack. The 'Evil Empire' proved unable to snuff out the flame of freedom and stifle the indomitable courage of the Afghan warriors. Thus, Afghanistan was an unachievable political and military target for the Soviets. Strategically, the Soviet tactics failed and their performance was incompetent and ineffective. The war also proved the competency and credibility of Western weapons over Soviet military technology. Consequently, the Soviets learned a hard lesson. The war was surely an unwanted drain on the Soviet budget. It became a 'bleeding wound' which eventually contributed to the collapse of the empire and its ideology.

Weaponry and War: Are Arms Transfers from the Former Soviet Union a Security Threat? The Case of Combat Aircraft by Thomas W Zarzecki

The post-Cold War threat of exports of advanced conventional weaponry from the former Soviet Union has been more of a paper tiger than a reality for US defense planners. In fact, transfers have been extremely limited in number and consequence. I argue that the period from 1990 to 1997 was characterized by political, economic, and technological restraints on exports from the ex-Soviet republics. These constraints will continue to limit transfers for the foreseeable future. Russia's plans to build up the defense industrial bases of China and India are cause for more concern. Even here, Russian arms cooperation has been problematic, and the long-term threat is uncertain.

From the Pages of History: Stalin's Minister V.S. Abakumov 1908–54 by I I Kuznetsov

Among the shadowy and sinister figures directing the former Soviet Union's state security apparatus, none was a more effective tool of state terror than V. S. Abakumov, the one-time chief of the NKVD, premier henchman of Lavrentii Beriia, and head of the Soviet wartime counterintelligence organ SMERSH. Despite the role he played as one of the chief architects of terror in the military, Abakumov's career has remained shrouded in secrecy. Kuznetsov's article lifts the veil of secrecy surrounding Abakumov and his activities and provides unique insights into the inner workings of the Soviet security apparatus within and outside of the military.

A Prosopographical Analysis of the Polish Naval Elite, 1918–1945 by M B Biskupski

When an independent Poland emerged in 1918 it had virtually no naval assets beyond an impressive cadre of officers, veterans of Russian, Austrian, or German service. The financial limitations of the state, as well as changes in naval policy and personnel prevented the creation of a powerful fleet which made promotion rare in the undersized Navy. The corporate profile of the senior officers frequently exhibits what the author deems the 'frozen career': a talented officer never reaching rank appropriate to his talents and achievements. Nonetheless, Poland's Navy acquitted itself with distinction in World War II.

Planning for Emergency Security Measures in Slovakia, 1969–1989 by Miloslav Púcik

On the basis of archival research the author reconstructs the genesis of the planned violent intervention of the Czechoslovak armed forces against the population of the country. He outlines the preparation of plans for extraordinary security measures made after the Warsaw Pact invasion in August 1968, which remained valid until the collapse of the communist regime. The study analyzes the problem of the role of the armed forces in the consolidation of the totalitarian regime. The author evaluates the participation of the army in the violent repression of the demonstrations against Soviet occupation in August 1969. With this, the army confirmed that after a wave of purges it became one of the pillars of the communist regime, which it remained until November 1989.

Review Essay: Women in War: The Red Army's Experience (4 titles) by David M Glantz

Book Reviews (5 titles)

Abstracts of articles in Issue 11.4

Problems of NATO Enlargement: The Accomplishments, Strengths and Weaknesses of the US Military (Security) Assistance Program by David M Glantz

This is the second in a series of articles on the nature and effectiveness of US military assistance to the newly designated NATO members in the twin realms of education and training. The first article sketched out the problems and challenges faced by Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary as they seek to achieve interoperability with existing NATO states by the time of their formal integration in 1999. This article describes the achievements and shortcomings in the US assistance program designed to facilitate that integration process. Of necessity, essentially for the sake of time and space, this article only summarizes the immensely complex form and structure of the program itself, and instead focuses on what the program has achieved or failed to achieve.

Intelligence Case Study: The Lesser of Two Hells: NKVD General G. S. Lyushkov's Defection to Japan, 1938–1945, Part 2 by Alvin D Coox

Genrikh Samoelovich Lyushkov soared in the Soviet firmament in 1937–38. A ruthless, loyal, experienced Chekist hatchet man serving Stalin, Yagoda, and Yezhov, he became NKVD Commissar for Siberia. His fortunes floundered thereafter, provoking recall. Though he knowingly endangered family, friends, and colleagues, Lyushkov dared to disobey, fleeing to Japan in June 1938. His defection contributed to destroying Yezhov and Marshal Blyukher, and causing border war with Japan at Khasan/Changkufeng. Till 1945 Lyushkov worked for the Japanese Army, which eventually murdered him at Dairen. He had survived seven years but ultimately failed to weaken Stalin, who outlasted him handily.

War in Chechnya: Russian Intervention in Chechnya in December 1994: Issues and Decision-Making by Nikolai V Grammatikov

After General Dudayev came to power in Chechnya in 1991 – with the help and complicity of President Yeltsin's administration - intimate co-operation existed between high-ranking corrupted officials in Moscow and Grozny. This co-operation was based on jointly-conducted robbery operations which resulted in the embezzlement of billions of US dollars from the State Treasury of the Russian Federation. When Dudayev became a burden for his robber partners in Moscow in their big geopolitical game over the export of Azeri and Kazakh oil through Russia, the more manageable and less avid leaders of the Chechen opposition were preferred to replace Dudayev. Furthermore, the transformation of Chechnya into a control-free 'turmoil zone' guaranteed fine incomes for the corrupted members of Chernomyrdin's government. The Chechen conflict permitted the 'magic disappearance' of a very substantial part of the Russian budget in 1995 and 1996. These misuses of public funds should be estimated not only in terms of billions of dollars, but also in terms of increasing top level corruption and organized crime that undermined the national interests and affected the decision-making of the Russian state authorities. To understand why the Kremlin opted for the military intervention in Chechnya, one should realize that in Yeltsin's Russia public capabilities were subordinated to the benefits of corrupted individuals and private businesses.

Jews in the Russian Army by Oleksandr Nayman

The participation of the Jews in the Russian Army began with the establishment of the Israeli Regiment by G. Potëmkin in 1786. The Jews helped the Russian Army during the war with Napoleon and exhibited heroism during the Crimean and Russo-Turkish Campaigns. After that the discriminating regulations concerning the position of the Jews in the Russian Army were somewhat eased. Many Jews received war decorations for their exploits during the Russo-Japanese War and World War I. More than half a million Jews fought fascism as members of the Red Army. They occupied fourth place with respect to the number of awards granted to various nationalities of the Soviet Union.

Republic of Belarus: Escape from Freedom by Marek J Karp

In order to explain the phenomenon of Lukashenko and the support for his policy, as shown by the majority of Belarussians, one needs to consider the history and the present structure of this society. At present there are huge differences between a relatively small group of intelligentsia opposed to the Lukashenko regime and the majority of society, supporting his policy. The differences between these groups are both political and historical. The former maintain that history of Belarussians can be traced back to the era of ancient Slavic tribes, the Polotsky Duchy and the Great Duchy of Lithuania. However, the historical conciousness of the latter – the majority of Belarussians – does not reach back that far. For them the fundamental points of reference are the Revolution of 1917, the Great Patriotic War (1941–45) and the Post-war Soviet era.

Rocketry: The Legacy of the V-2: The First Soviet Ballistic Missiles by Igor Afanasyev

This piece details the development history of early Soviet ballistic missiles in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The first Soviet ballistic missiles, the R-1 and R-2, were close derivatives of wartime German missile technology. But the R-5 represented the first step in a new generation of entirely Soviet missile designs. The article also illuminates the complicated early roots of the later Soviet design bureaus responsible for missile technology.

Defense Economics: The Bulgarian Defense Industry during the Transition Period (1990–-97) by Dimitŕr Dimitrov

The Bulgarian Defense-Industrial Complex (DIC) has a long and rich history. Many changes have occurred during the transition period (1990–97). These changes were both external and internal. State policy and regulation of DIC have played important roles in the process of transformation. It resulted in some positive things – clear regulation of military trade, optimizing the DIC's management and increased flexibility of DIC enterprises. Nevertheless there are problems for the future – the necessity for clear state policy toward the DIC, improving the legal basis and coming restructuring and privatisation of the Bulgarian DIC.

From the Pages of History: 'October Storm' and Other Warsaw Pact Air Assault Exercises by Hubert Krolikowski

The Mysterious High-Numbered Red Army Rifle Divisions by James F Goff

Soviet and Western sources for the Great Patriotic War have generally presented the highest numbered Red Army rifle division as the 422nd. However, they overlooked the 51 divisions numbered in the 423rd-474th series. This study clarifies the short history and intriguing geographic pattern of this little-known series of divisions.

In the Russian Archives: According to the Dictates of the Heart by Dmitriy Loza

Review Essay (6 titles) by Michael Parrish

Book Review (1 title)

In the Next Issue

Index to Volume 11 (1998)