Low Intensity Conflict & Law Enforcement

Abstracts of articles in Issue 10.2

Military-to-Military Contacts: Personal Observations – The El Salvador Case by John D. Waghelstein

The United States counterinsurgency operation in El Salvador was a success. The decade-long struggle to prevent another communist victory in the hemisphere and achieve a democratic, non-abusive state merits study. That we were able to accomplish these ends, despite a sometimes disorganized and contradictory Executive Branch, a narrowly divided Congress, a press that wavered between hostile and skeptical, a scarcity of resources and personnel, and the Vietnam syndrome that seemed to have infected everything, makes this case even more remarkable. Admittedly, events outside the country contributed to the outcome e.g. the disintegration of the Soviet Union, electoral repudiation of the Sandinistas and re-election of a supportive administration in Washington. Nevertheless, there are too many useful lessons learned or re-learned to dismiss what happened in El Salvador as merely ‘situation specific’. The role of the US Military Group (MILGP) as part of the Country Team’s efforts to support a flawed ally is of particular interest. The following is a personal examination of the US military’s influence in El Salvador during the insurgency. While we extol the military-to-military success, we should remember that the six MILGP commanders, the dozens of Operational Planning Assistance and Training Teams (OPATTs), the scores of Mobile Training Teams (MTTs) and the hundreds of others who served in El Salvador were but one element of a set of comprehensive policy tools in the hands of the four exceptionally talented ambassadors who led the Country Team from 1981 through the close of the conflict in 1991

Colombia’s Paramilitary Ceasefire: Counterinsurgency Challenges and Opportunities by Carlos Ramos-Mrosovsky

This article examines the counterinsurgency implications of the recently opened peace talks between the Colombian government and the illegal AUC paramilitary umbrella organization. The author argues that the Colombian government and its US partners must adopt a new approach to counterinsurgency in order to fill the power vacuum created by the demobilization or fragmentation of the AUC. In this light, he defends Colombian President Alvaro Uribe’s plan to raise local militia units as an advance in the right direction. The article also argues for an enhanced program of military civic action and forward deployment of US military advisers in Colombia as steps towards improved human rights practices and an effort that is both more legitimate and more effective

Intelligence and Post-Conflict Reconstruction in Bosnia-Herzegovina by Stan Siry and Derek Reveron

Intervention lessons of the last decade underscore the importance of non-traditional intelligence support to post-conflict reconstruction efforts. Political exploitation of ethnicity, organized crime, political corruptio, and at-large war criminals undermine international efforts of nation building. For American and coalition forces to be successful in peacekeeping, peace enforcement and nation building, a new approach to intelligence is required. Analysis of US European Command intelligence reporting suggests that not enough tactical intelligence is produced for SFOR to combat crime and corruption in Bosnia-Herzegovina. With this disadvantage, international attempts to rebuild Bosnia-Herzegovina will continue to stagnate. Intelligence to support these missions requires expertise normally resident in law enforcement agencies. For the international community to be successful, intelligence must not only shift from the strategic level to the street level in Bosnia-Herzegovina, but also from US ONLY to UN RELEASABLE.

Transcending the Nuclear Framework: Deterrence and Compellence as Counter-Terrorism Strategies by Josh Carter

Deterrent and compellent threats are as old as the use of force itself, but their application changes with the strategic environment. Just as strategists developed special theories of deterrence and compellence during the Cold War nuclear rivalry, policy makers must consider how deterrence and compellence might best be applied to the threat of terrorism. Terrorists’ tactics and objectives, as well as the sources and timing of terrorist threats, change the implementation of deterrence and compellence. Though it is tempting to believe deterrent and compellent threats are useless against terrorists, policy makers should reassess rather than reject the use of deterrent and compellent threats as responses to terrorism.

From Clothes to Cocaine: Five Hundred Years of Smuggling in Mexico by James L. Zackrison

Any study of corruption and smuggling in Mexico is incomplete without an understanding of its history. Smuggling and bribery began almost as soon as Spain conquered the country, and has flourished ever since. The problem is one of governance, with a centuries-long law and order tradition that tolerates the use of government office for personal gain, to the detriment of the governed. Corruption permeates the system, from the lowest scribe to the office of the president. Drug smuggling is only the latest form of illegal activity. Efforts to stem corruption and smuggling will take generations of political and cultural reform.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 10.1

Prelims

Nuclear Terrorism: Reactors and Radiological Attacks After 11 September by Gavin Cameron

This article will assess the threat of terrorist attacks on nuclear reactors or attacks using radiological materials. It will begin by examining the danger posed by aircraft being crashed into a reactor and compare that threat with the more familiar one posed by terrorists using truck bombs against reactors. The article will then assess the history of terrorism directed against nuclear facilities; the problems posed by insiders, both as potential saboteurs and thieves of nuclear material; the risk to parts of the nuclear fuel cycle other than reactors; and finally, the threat of radiological terrorism. It concludes that although the ramifications for the nuclear industry of the attacks on 11 September remain unclear, better protection of facilities and materials is clearly justified.

Building A ‘Partnership’ for Peace in Intrastate Wars: India’s Peacekeeping Style in Somalia (1993–95) by Kabilan Krishnasamy

The Indian military often relates to its experience as part of the UN peace operation in Somalia not only positively but also as being unique. The Indian military contingent had a very different agenda in terms of managing the conflict in Somalia. While the UN was pursuing greater use of force by coercing co-operation, the Indian army adopted a peacekeeping style that relied less on force and more on seeking and fostering local community support. The Indian military’s community-oriented and people-centred conflict management approaches enhanced not only its presence in the field but also its popularity among key disputants and wider local community. This article aims to shed some light on the kinds of strategies employed by the Indian army during its deployment in Somalia and also to draw some inferences from its experience for the future conduct of intrastate peacekeeping operations.

Transnational Threats: Falling Through the Cracks? by Kim Thachuk

‘Transnational threats’ is the label given to a growing and diverse category of phenomena that cut across national borders, and often are not directly controlled by national governments. Some of the threats arise not necessarily as the result of malicious intent on the part of the actors, but rather, they are the outcome of criminal actions undertaken in the pursuit of power and wealth. They have gained prominence in recent years as one by-product of the disorderly conditions that unfolded after the end of the Cold War a decade ago and are all the more critical since the attacks of 11 September. This in turn has created a certain degree of uncertainty about exactly what phenomena constitute threats to US national security. For instance, the line between matters military and political/economic interests has become increasingly blurred. A further question arises as to how to ‘shape’ the international environment when the actors on the world stage are in the process of mutating to the point that few analysts agree on the categories of threats and what particular arm of the US government should be charged with addressing them. Yet, even proactively addressing these threats is difficult as the current global reality makes it difficult to predict when the United States will be threatened, by what, and by whom.

The Transformation of Low Intensity Conflict in Latin America by Oscar Menjivar

The main purpose of this study is to portray the transformation that the concept of low intensity conflict (LIC) has undergone in recent times. Although there have been learned contributions characterizing LIC by distinguishing this type of confrontation from modern war, most of the literature tends to lump LICs in a single category, thereby failing to elaborate on their specificity and diminishing the possibilities for analyzing, solving and managing them. This article seeks to contribute to overcome that shortcoming by contrasting two types of such conflict: revolutionary war and postmodern war. The Colombian conflict is studied, in some detail, to illustrate that metamorphosis. Based on these theoretical and empirical undertakings symptoms of postmodern war that are surfacing in other Latin American countries are also examined. A few reflections are offered on present and future policies geared to confront, mitigate, manage or end LICs in their most recent form, hoping to contribute to the strengthening of the analytical bases on which new policies can be designed.

Review Article: Colombia’s Violence by Jennifer M. Archibeque

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 9.3

Some Considerations on the Theoretical Standing of Peacekeeping Operations by Domicio Proenca Jr

The original clarity of what peacekeeping operations (PKOs) are supposed to be no longer exists, and PKOs have become whatever peace forces are called to do. This is altogether unsatisfactory, since it leaves the political and tactical considerations that must instruct and constrain PKOs open to ad hoc arrangements or exposed to substantive misunderstanding as to their purpose, nature, possibilities and methods. This article offers a few considerations on the theoretical standing of PKOs. The article first seeks to clarify a set of basic understandings, acknowledge awareness of the political, doctrinal and conceptual trajectories of what might be termed PKO-studies and argues for the value of a theoretical approach. It then addresses, in turn, PKOs as an object of the theory of war, concluding that PKOs are a form of coalition war and deriving some considerations from that realization; and PKOs as objects of the theory of police, concluding that PKOs involve multicultural policing responsibilities of a particular kind, that of ‘alien-community’ policing, and deriving some considerations from that realization. It closes with some remarks as to the utility of either attempt and some remarks in terms of their force planning consequences.

The Nature of Organized Crime: An Economic Perspective by Richard Lotspeich

Following a brief survey of different models of organized crime, this article applies principles from the ‘new institutional economics’ to analyze the organization of crime, recognizing that activities commonly associated with ‘organized crime’ are fundamentally economic in nature. Many of the empirical regularities of organized crime can be explained using this framework. Criminal organization is characterized by a mixture of market and administrative relationships; yet it is the latter that are the focus of most discussion of organized crime and drive related law enforcement efforts. Other forms of organization are equally important, and the article identifies forces that promote one type of organization over others. The framework developed is consistent with other conceptions of organized crime and reveals relationships among them.

An Alternative Strategy for Fighting Cocaine Trafficking in Bolivia by Jose Agreda

This is a study of coca culture and its relationship to the problem of cocaine production. It addresses the use of the coca leaf since the ancient culture of the Inca Empire. It also provides a thorough discussion of the origin of cocaine. It analyzes the current trafficking problem and how the Bolivian government met with success in its eradication efforts by implementing the plan ‘With Dignity’. However the study looks for a new alternative for the future. The traditional way of fighting, based in eradication and interdiction, has had little result in reducing the trafficking of cocaine. The market for coca leaves has shifted to areas where agriculture of coca crops is legal; therefore, cocaine production will continue to create problems for the Bolivian and US governments. There is a new alternative strategy where the center of gravity is the economic instrument of national power. By applying the basic principles of economy, the intent is to control the supply of drugs through taxation. Taxation will reduce demand and thereby effectively reduce the amount of coca crop. Also, the project addresses the problem of corruption and how the US could help to discourage farmers from the production of coca crops.

Strategic Development for Special Operations Force Logistics by David M. More, David Allen and Peter D. Antill

This article highlights the specific logistics problems which special operations forces have, given their highly specialist nature and the factors that act upon them such as external (political, economic and national culture) and internal influences as well as the changing face of warfare. It will examine the ways in which special operations forces are currently supported logistically and will go on to consider the ways by which commercial ‘best-practice’ could be used to enhance the mission effectiveness of forces employed in this role.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 9.2

Northern Ireland: The Unravelling Peace Process by James Dingley

This paper aims at a critical analysis of the peace process in Northern Ireland and the failure of the current 'Agreement'. It stresses a security analysis of the situation and argues that conventional political analysis failed to understand the Republican movement, its strategy and tactics. The key problem was the failure of Republicans to decommission, but they probably had no intention of doing so, as weapons are central to their existence. Other parties to the Agreement failed to comprehend this, and thus had an overly optimistic hope of peace and normality. By fudging the issue of decommissioning, the Agreement ended up being not an agreement, and therefore collapsed. This collapse may not be to the disadvantage of Republicans.

Bitter Harvets: The Royal Ulster Constabulary's Response to Paramiliary Vigilantism in Northern Ireland by Andrew Silke

Parlimentary involvement in vigilantism continues to be a significant problem in ceasefire Northern Ireland. This paper examines how the vigilantism has been perceived by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), both at an official level and unofficial level. The paper outlines the role the RUC played in the development of organized vigilante systems within many areas of the province. While the paper recognizes that the RUC were operating – and continue to operate – in highly difficult circumstances, avoidable errors were made in how to respond to the alternative justice system. It is argued that a number of RUC practices and policies ultimately worked to reinforce and legitimize the vigilantism within certain communities, while other policies that could have undermined the paramilitaries' alternative justice systems were not implemented. The article focuses on the lessons, which can be taken from the RUC's experience and considers too, the current situation facing the force in Northern Ireland as they attempt to restore normal policing.

Vigilantism in South Africa by Rachel Monaghan

The public murder of Rashaad Staggie – a notorious gang leader in Cape Town – by members of PAGAD (People Against Gangsterism and Drugs), and the stoning to death of a driver who had accidentlly run over a two-year-old boy by an angry crowd in a township, are but two recent examples of vigilantism in South Africa. These examples do not, however, signal the emergence of a new or recent phenomenon. Rather, vigilantism, the taking of the law into one's own hands can be seen to have existed in a variety of forms throughout the twentieth century. This article examines the changing nature of vigilante activity in South Africa and suggests possible explanations for the continued existence of the phenomenon.

The US Marines' Combined Action Program in Vietnam: The Formulation of Counterinsurgency Tactics within a Strategic Debate by Paul Melshen

The US Marines developed the Combined Action Program (CAP) in their counterinsurgency effort in the Vietnam War. The program proved to be one of the most effective counterinsurgency tactics the war produced. The program itself was formulated within a strategic debate between the Army and the Marines. The Army wanted to pursue a mobile war, attacking main line units, while the Marines sought to pursue a pacification strategy. Although achieving some limited success, the program never expanded to the point where complete pacification could be achieved.

Civilian-Militaryt Relations in International Peace Operations by Nadia Martinez Patrone

This article examines the relationship between civilians and military personnel deployed in international peace operations. It analyzes the positive and negative effects of combined civilian-military action, and considers the reasons for tensions that may develop among the numerous actors involved in these complex missions. Finally, it highlights the efforts that have been made by the United States government, and various United Nations agencies, and makes recommendations toward improving the current conditions of these operations, and thus preventing the tensions.

Review Article

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 9.1

Fighting in the Seams: Small Wars and Peace Wars by Stephen J Cimbala The routine assignment of US combat forces to non-combatant or quasi-combatant roles heavily impacted with political and cultural variables is a mixed blessing for the American military and for the political leadership. The insertion of forces into failed states on constabulary missions requires a mastery of the art of military coercion and propitious circumstances within which to exercise command of that art. Even if the mastery is there, the favorable environment (political, social and cultural) for the effective application of military persuasion may not be. Urban environments present an especially daunting challenge for US planners and policy-makers. Throw in a US public, Congress and media that are casualty averse and video trained to believe that technology cures all problems and you have a recipe for political and military disappointment, not to say disaster.

Albania and NATO’s Strategic Partnership: After the Conflict in Kosovo by Ryan C Hendrickson and Brian J Forneris

This paper focuses on NATO’s role(s) in Albania and the new strategic relationship that has developed since the conflict in Kosovo. The strategic and humanitarian problems in Kosovo represented a crucial test for NATO and its progressive security mandate after the Cold War, and also had a ripple effect in southern Europe that produced a new strategic environment for NATO and Albania. This paper suggests that a new de facto alliance between NATO and Albania has developed that will assist Albania in stabilizing its democracy and demonstrate NATO’s evolving role in providing Balkan security.

Colombia: The Military and the Narco-Conflict by Patricia Bibes

This paper provides the reader with an overall understanding of the role of Colombia’s military in the narco-conflict. Both the military and the Colombian National Police (CNP) have had important responsibilities in the past fight against drug trafficking. In response to the escalation of the drug conflict, Colombia has secured additional US military aid and has formulated a plan, known as Plan Colombia, which aims at restructuring the country’s economy as well as its national military strategy in order to combat better the illegal armed forces involved in the drug industry. This paper provides a synopsis of Colombia’s current military strategy as well as overviews of operational results and eradication efforts. The paper will also include the role of the CNP and discuss human rights issues in connection with the drug war.

Shrinking States and Weakening Security: Erosion of Governance in Suriname, Guyana and Jamaica by Gary Brana-Shute

Despite being functioning, de jure democracies, many Caribbean countries are facing serious threats to their sovereignty, stability and security. This paper examines Suriname, Jamaica and Guyana from the perspective of the shrinking or diminishing capability of the state to maintain order, justice, political equity and, ultimately, the democratic process. Suriname’s fragile democracy, following two military coups, must deal with an alarming internal narco-trafficking ‘kartel’ structure with political connections. Jamaica continues to function despite the highest per capita violence and murder rate in the western hemisphere, a consequence of narco-gang commerce. Guyana’s tortured political-race relations have split the state into two mutually antagonistic nations.

Terrorism and Sovereignty: Considering the Potential for Success by Daniel S Gressang IV

This article examines the potential for understanding terrorism in terms of the terrorists’ verbal, written, and symbolic messages, and the way those messages are understood and perceived by the terrorists’ audience. In particular, perceived challenges to existing social norms and expectations are offered as playing a critical role in shaping the likelihood of the success of terrorists. Using the Weathermen, the Baader-Meinhof Gang/Red Army Faction, and the Mojahedin-e Khalq as case studies, the paper suggests those terrorist groups which challenge the existing power and institutional structure within the framework of accepted norms, are the most likely to survive and perhaps prosper. Terrorists who directly challenge existing social norms and expectations, on the other hand, appear to have a significantly lower prospect for long-term survival and effectiveness.

Waco: Failures in Crisis Management and the Misapplication of Coercive Diplomacy by Andrew C Curtis

This article examines the stand-off at Waco in light of concepts traditionally applied to the study of major international crises: coercive diplomacy and coercive inducement. The article begins with a detailed, factual summary of the incident and then introduces the central tenets of coercive diplomacy, drawing heavily from Alexander George’s Forceful Persuasion and The Limits of Coercive Diplomacy. Viewed in these terms, the FBI’s management of the Waco incident represents a profound failure in crisis management and a misapplication of coercive inducement with disastrous consequences.

Book Reviews:

The Future of Terrorism edited by David C Rapoport and Paul Wilkinson

Algerian Disaster, Western Disgrace: The Algerian Civil War, 1990–1998 by Luis Martinez

Abstracts of articles in Issue 8.3

Does the Security Debate Have to be Presented Polemically?: Landmines and the Case for a Micro-Security Approach by Melissa Curry, Frank Faulkner and Lloyd Pettiford The debate over security in IR is nearly two decades old and, at times, strongly characterized by an ‘us’ and ‘them’ polemical style. We argue, through an analysis of the threat posed by landmines, that a dialogue of ideas between human (micro) security and state security is possible and useful. In order to make this argument we first outline the extent of the problem of landmines and conclude by offering some optimism regarding mutual engagement rather than polemicism in the security debate; we stress the importance of micro-security issues as a part of this. Along the way we argue that part of this mutual engagement would be recognition of the validity of certain aspects of the work of critical theorists and postmodernists.

Relating Doctrine to Strategy: A Prelude to Success for Twenty-First Century Warfare by Kimbra L Fishel

This article relates military doctrine to strategy through the construction of a theoretical doctrine derived from the requirements of US national security strategy. This hypothetical doctrine combines the Manwaring Paradigm with the concept that conflict can and does shift along a spectrum of warfare. The article concludes that, while the military has incorporated certain key elements into its military doctrine, it retains a sharp distinction between LIC and other forms of warfare. The US will likely need to overcome this distinction if it is to successfully meet the challenge of twenty-first century security threats.

Going Beyond Joint: The U.S. Military’s Role and Missions in Domestic, Interagency ‘Operations Other than War’ by Herbert C Huser

This article addresses the use of all components of the ‘total force’ in domestic inter-agency operations, using ‘jointness’ as a point of departure for exploring similar needs in this environment. It examines inter-agency organization and operations involving both active and reserve component forces in domestic disaster-assistance and counter-drug operations. It traces the history of military involvement in such operations and the legal basis upon which participation by each component is based. The article then analyses participation in light of recent changes in the operational environment and use of forces in ‘Operations Other Than War’. It concludes with suggestions on better organization and use in these situations.

Joint Force of Choice for Peace Enforcement by Brigadier General Raymond E Bell, Jr, AUS-Retired

The US Army’s Military Police, the US Air Force’s Security Forces, and the US Coast Guard are seldom seen as components of a viable enforcement synergism. Yet, when they work together they have great potential, which, sadly, is little understood outside the military law-enforcement community. That these military enforcement agencies are highly capable of operating in an environment that is neither war nor peace demands more attention and appreciation. Ironically, once their capabilities are realized these enforcement entities often find themselves overextended. This short treatise is designed to put the spotlight on such capabilities as well as show how these components can work together.

Right-Wing Paramilitary Groups in Chile, 1900–1950 by Carlos Maldonado

This article addresses a factor often ignored in studies of Chilean political-military history, that of the long existence of right-wing paramilitary political groups. These groups raise the question of the degree to which Chile, prior to 1973, was the ideal democracy that it was generally perceived to be. In addition, the article suggests that the political tradition represented by right-wing paramilitary groups must still be reckoned with in the development of the post-Pinochet democracy.

Tribalism and African Nationalist Wars of Liberation, 1945–1980 by Paul Melshen

This article addresses the role of tribalism in Africa’s wars for independence. It argues that, in general, independence movements developed through three stages. In the first stage there was a great deal of unity of effort. In the second stage political factionalism appeared compounded by tribal differences. Finally, in the third stage, tribalism came to dominate the entire movement and tribal conflict became the central focus of political conflict. In concluding, the article asserts that tribalism remains at the very heart of current conflict in Africa.

Observations from a Haitian Vacation by Adam B Siegel

This article provides an analyst’s perspective on the US military’s Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti, fall 1994, based on a deployment with those forces aboard ship and on the ground. The article focuses on four issues areas: disconnects between policy and operational reality; interagency activity (and, again, disconnects); military operations; and inter-service. Rather than attempting to document the total operation, this article tackles a number of interrelated issues that suggest lessons for other operations.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 8.2

US Unconventional Warfare Operations and Lessons from Central America, 1980–1990: A Successful Economy of Force Engagement Strategy by Alfred R Barr and Caesar D Sereseres

As we move into a new century, it is appropriate to look back at American military involvement since the end of World War II. Given the expected nature of warfare in the early twenty-first century, US interventions into unconventional war environments should be of particular interest. In the short-term future, US allies, friendly governments, or ‘clusters’ of population identified by their religion, culture, race, and ethnicity will be subjected to armed threats or actual violence. These conflict situations throughout the world may or may not directly affect vital US national security interests. However, humanitarian and moral concerns may drive a decision for military intervention to ‘rescue’ an ally or defenseless populations. Current evidence and trends suggest more internal wars and the likelihood of more military interventions. The question thus presented in this paper is the following: What was learned or should have been learned from past US experiences in unconventional warfare? This paper argues that one of the most recent and telling complex, lengthy unconventional warfare involvements of the United States is in danger of being lost. The Central American wars of the 1980s deserve close scrutiny and serious analysis.

The Reagan Administration and El Salvador, 1981–84: Bureaucratic and Domestic Politics Revisited by Shawn Sullivan

This article examines US foreign policy in El Salvador during 1981 and 1983. It argues that foreign policy outcomes are primarily the result of executive branch bureaucratic politics and domestic political pressure exerted by Congress and special interest groups.

International Non-State Terrorism and The Transstate Paradigm by Amy E Wisgerhof

This article shows that the transstate security paradigm provides a better explanation of the security challenges posed by international non-state terrorism than the traditional model of international relations based on the nation-state. The transstate security paradigm, as defined here, is a model of international affairs that identifies a shift away from the state-centric values, institutions and strategies that political scientists used to describe the international system.

Business as Usual:The Effects of the Hand-over of Hong Kong on the Triads by Johnathan Hodge

The triads of Hong Kong have long been an area of interest and concern for crime analysts. This article explores the effects of the hand-over of Hong Kong on these crime groups and suggests that far from producing the anticipated exodus from Hong Kong, the hand-over in fact left the triads relatively untouched. It shows that the motivating forces that were expected to drive the triads out of Hong Kong did not actually exist, and that the hand-over in fact offered the triads greater access to both new and existing opportunities.

A New United States Strategy for Mexico by Joseph R Nunez

The author argues that the current US strategy for Mexico is severely out of balance and requires major policy changes, particularly in the politco–military realm. Only the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is working well. US efforts to deal with Mexico on drug interdiction, counter-insurgency, human rights, and democratic expansion have largely failed because of a lack of a focused and consistent strategy that integrates various national interests within a long-term perspective. The main focus of the article is the insurgency in southern Mexico. A new strategy is detailed that should be of interest to policymakers.

The Economic Community of West African States, Conflict Management and the Liberian Civil War by George Klay Kieh, Jr.

The article examines the impact of the use of multiple modes of conflict management – peacekeeping, peacemaking and peace enforcement – by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) on the resolution on the Liberian Civil War. Overall, the use of the multiple modes of conflict management created the conditions for the resolution of the Liberian Civil War. Specifically, the use of the peacekeeping mode helped to control and minimize the fighting between the belligerents. The peacemaking mode provided the avenues for reaching a political settlement as the terra firma for the termination of the civil war. In the case of the peace enforcement mode, it helped to induce compliance with the peace accords signed by the warring factions.

Review Articles:

Upholding Democracy: The United States Military Campaign in Haiti, 1994–1997 by John R. Ballard

Invasion, Intervention, ‘Intervasion’: A Concise History of the U. S. Army in Operation Uphold Democracy by Walter E Kretchik, Robert F Baumann, and John T Fishel.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 8.1

Organized Crime in the Western Hemisphere: Content, Context, Consequences, and Countermeasures by Ivelaw L Griffith

This work suggests that a comprehensive assessment of organized crime in the Western Hemisphere requires analysis of at least four factors: content, context, consequences, and countermeasures. The four factors are linked, in that content and context factors are mutually influencing, both content and context affect consequences, and countermeasures are a function of the dynamics of the three. In terms of content, narcotics, terrorism, and arms trafficking are core organized crime issues. Global interdependence, privatization, and deregulation are some important contextual elements, while corruption, local crime, and increased reliance on private security are among unmistakable consequences. Countermeasures have to be both bilateral and multilateral, and require the involvement of state and non-state actors. The study posits that policy makers dealing with organized crime should resist political pressures for quick fixes, as organized crime is not amenable to such.

The Guerrillas Next Door: A Short History of Mexico's Armed Revolutionaries from the 1960s to the EZLN Uprising of 1994 by Lincoln B Krause

Leftist insurgent groups have operated continuously in Mexico since 1964. In the decades preceding the headline-grabbing 1994 uprising by the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN), Mexico experienced a rural and then an urban-based wave of insurgency. These two waves traced their origins to political activism that swept Mexico in the 1950s, and were further inspired by the Cuban Revolution. Both waves ultimately failed due to both effective, if brutal, government countermeasures, as well as the insurgents' inability to unify their movement. The most significant legacy of Mexico's two insurgent waves was to form the basis of the current third wave, which includes the EZLN.

Defense Decisionmaking and Accountability Structures in the Philippines by Patrice Franko

This article analyzes the structure of defense decisionmaking in the Philippines by focusing on three concerns facing Filipino Defense Minister Orly Mercado: the process of force modernization, the guerilla insurgency in the south and the flare-up of regional tensions in the Spratly Islands. After a detailed description of the decisionmaking structure in the security arena and a discussion of the roles and missions of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the analysis centers on the institutional difficulties in appropriating the funding for the modernization of equipment for the Armed Forces. A lack of clarity and transparency in procedures has complicated decisionmaking in the past. The immediacy of regional tensions, as well as difficulties with the Muslim insurgency in the south of the country, has underscored the importance of modernization in the public's eye. Despite support for reform, acquisition is held up by legal and political problems in the transfer of funds. Lessons of the case include the need to strengthen and clarify the relationship between the Armed Forces and both the executive and the legislative branches of government.

Civil-Military Operations in the Post-War Sarajevo Region by Richard K Sele

US Army Civil Affairs units conducted a variety of civil-military operations in Southeast Bosnia between December 1995 and November 1996. These operations contributed significantly to the implementation of the civil aspects of the Dayton Peace Accord. Civil Affairs support to the International Police Task Force proved to be the most successfully conducted civil affairs operation during this time period. It also had the most immediate impact as it contributed directly to the mitigation of violence in the region by facilitating the operational capabilities of the IPTF, enabling them to perform their duties of monitoring and training the Bosnian Federation police. This research developed assessment measures to analyze and compare the effectiveness of four civil-military operations in the region. It also provided a template based on conflict resolution mechanisms and levels of conflict, by which the military planner can prioritize civil-military operations.

Mission Creep: An Autopsy of a Hopefully Dying Term by Adam B Siegel

'Mission Creep' is a code-word phrase that influences approaches to military operations even though no common definition or understanding exists as to what 'mission creep' is. In short, the term Mission Creep is: (1) an unclear concept which is (2) a powerful term that stifles discussion in support of (3) an attempt to preempt the inevitable. This article attempts to shed some light on 'mission creep' to improve the level of debate surrounding military operations and tasks within these operations.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 7.3

Giving the Devil His Due: Transforming the Human Rights/National Security Dialogue in Argentina by Eric Stener Carlson

Against the back drop of Argentina's experience, this article addresses the need for human rights advocates to develop a dialogue with the Argentine Armed Forces concerning what constitutes the legitimate use of state violence. Since the re-establishment of democracy in Argentina 15 years ago, specialists have grappled with the dilemma of transforming the Argentine Armed Forces from a human-rights-abusing institution bent on destroying civilian rule into a more benevolent, external-defense-oriented organization dedicated to upholding the Constitution. These experts have proposed structural, legal and educational changes aimed at preventing a repetition of the 1976–1982 'Dirty War'. The author judges that there will always be a need to question military paradigms and a need to counterbalance the rights of a nation's citizens against the perceived exigencies of national security. However, to be effective advocates in the most inclusive sense of the word, to advocate the acceptance of human rights values during counterinsurgency campaigns among a wider audience and across the spectrum of 'left' and 'right', it is indispensable that human rights advocates enter into a dialogue with the Argentine Armed Forces. The human rights community – while remaining cognizant of the pitfalls of rapprochement – should seriously analyze the Armed Forces' critiques and not automatically dismiss them as insincere attempts to shift blame.

Cazadores: Argentina's Light Infantry Special Operations Force by Lynn W Seyler

This article discusses the roles, missions, training and employment of Argentine light infantry units called cazadores (hunters). Formed in response to economic and military reform requirements, cazador companies (5) employ classic light infantry technique. Offensively, they conduct raids, ambushes, prisoner snatches, and act as spotters for artillery and air interdiction. Additionally, they may be employed for marking airborne and air assault LZs. Defensively, they cover flanks, temporarily hold key terrain features, act as stay-behind forces for striking enemy supply lines and command, control, and communications (C3) infrastructure. For all of these missions, the cazadores operate in formations of platoon size or smaller. Some specialists believe they may eventually be used to counter terrorists or organized crime if required, a mission the Army is reluctant to embrace. Compact, low-tech, with a high 'tooth-to-tail' ratio and cheap to maintain and train, the cazadores seem likely to survive, regardless of the financial or strategic pitfalls that the Army may encounter.

Security on Brazil's Amazon Frontier by William W Mendel

This article provides a view of the Brazilian Army's traditional role of guarding extensive frontier areas while supporting the development of settlements that establish Brazil's permanent ownership of border lands. The activities of a brigade-sized Frontier Command, its jungle infantry battalion and border platoon settlements are described.

Media Exploitation in the Counternarcotics Initiatives: The Case of the Colombian Drug War by Andes Soto Velasco

This article examines the US post-Cold War re-evaluation of national security challenges and judges that the major perceived threat in Latin America has become the illegal drug trade, not revolutionary insurgency. The article seeks to distinguish the elements that constitute the resulting ‘drug war’, and the part mass media coverage has played in its development. A basic premise for the argument presented is that within the American government, the drug enforcement bureaucracy has created a self-serving process. As a consequence, questionable repressive approaches to the drug problem have extended the influence of the bureaucracy within the federal government generally, and in foreign policy formulation and implementation in particular. The media has played a significant role in this process as an instrument of socialization, and the mechanisms that best captivate the public's fears. This has led to frictions, misunderstandings and an increasing need to use the media to promote the prevailing values of each participant in the antidrug campaigns.

Testimony before the International Relations Committee's Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs by Carlos M Salinas

The author of this presentation reports on his views of the current human rights situation in Colombia. The general situation is assessed as dire. Any perceived or actual critic of the current political or human rights situation is targeted: judges, lawyers, journalists, trade unionists, teachers, and students. Virtually every sector is affected by political violence. Bearing the brunt of the violence is the civilian population, which is assailed from all sides. The two most significant armed opposition groups, the FARC and the ELN, have waged guerrilla warfare in Colombia for more than three decades and both groups engage in violations of humanitarian law, including the killing and abduction of non-combatants. Paramilitary forces, often operating with the support or acquiescence of the regular security forces, currently account for two out of three political killings in Colombia, and carry out massacres of non-combatant civilians. The links between the paramilitary and regular security forces cannot be stressed enough and have been amply documented by Amnesty International. The single most important contribution of the US government to human rights in Colombia is to speak clearly, consistently, and forcefully about the importance of protecting human rights and to match these words with deeds.

Watching the Watchers: Ensuring the Appropriate Use of Electronic Surveillance and Legislation in the Fight against Terrorism in the United States by Richard Allan

This article - which focuses on terrorist interdiction - is intended to serve two purposes. First, it discusses a crucial element of any model for an effective federal terrorism statute and, second, within this model, the author proposes a supervisory system for the increasingly broad electronic surveillance program now being implemented by US police and intelligence agencies. This system must be one that would be effective in the United States today, one that is of a type that is appropriate for terrorist interdiction and one that would be an acceptable companion to our value system of civil liberties. Its potential lessons are adaptable to any country that seeks to confront a terrorist threat but simultaneously wishes to uphold or expand a value system based on the maximum possible level of individual rights and liberties.

The Law of the Sea Revisited by David Keithly

Vigorous debates about revolutions in military affairs, occurring as part of larger discussions of twenty-first century warfare, should generate reconsideration of critical issues associated with the law of the sea – particularly with an eye to identifying potential wellsprings of conflict. Attention to such challenges and attendant aspects of conflict has been conspicuously absent from most analyses. Maritime law will encounter new complexities and difficulties to which governments and the sea services will have to respond. The expansion of national, and in some cases international, authority over the sea is likely. Evolution of the law of the sea will affect naval strategy in the twenty-first century, and by extension, the maritime powers. United States polity should be cognizant of potential problems, and act upon them.

Hearing on the Administration's Program for Critical Infrastructure Protection by Jeffrey A Hunker

This document discusses the US Administration's initiatives to protect the nation's critical infrastructures. There are two new Presidential Decision Directives (PDD): PDD-62, which contains major initiatives to combat international terrorist threats, including threats to our critical infrastructures, and PDD-63, which is devoted entirely to protecting the nation's critical infrastructures from physical and cyber threats. This document focuses on PDD-63, and sets out the goals the President established for securing the nation's infrastructures, and the milestones and mechanisms he established for achieving these goals. PDD-63's intent is to put in place a process that will take the necessary measures to eliminate any significant vulnerability to both physical and cyber attacks on our critical infrastructures, including especially our cyber-based systems. The document stresses that never before in any other area have economic, law enforcement and traditional national security issues been so intertwined. And to add to the difficulties not only are our infrastructures privately operated but also they are interconnected and interdependent, so that an attack on one can have reverberations in others.

The Intelligence Threat Assessment Function and the New Threats by Richard A Clarke

The author's remarks address the ways in which intelligence requirements and threat assessments have changed in the post-Cold War world. The old paradigm used to address the challenges posed by the Soviet Armed Forces have changed fundamentally with a range of newly emerging threats like information warfare and the terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction. Risk and vulnerability assessments have taken on new dimensions, and intelligence, military and security planners – faced with the possibility of surprises to come – must adapt 'or go the way of the cavalry'.