Local Government Studies

Abstracts of articles in Issue 29.3

Partnerships between Health and Local Government: An Introduction by Stephanie Snape & Pat Taylor

This introductory article seeks to provide what every teacher (and apt pupil) understands as the two key features of any introduction: an explanation and description of the context within which collaboration has yet again become a favoured activity in the public sector; and a clear structural map of the succeeding essays which form this special issue, which also signposts the key arguments and evidence to be presented by the various authors. The context for the special issue has been examined through exploring the interesting relationship between New Labour's emphasis on partnership working and the 'succession struggles' which surround New Public Management (NPM). New Labour's love affair with the partnership mode of governing has been pivotal in instigating a fundamental debate about the nature of the public sector (and its reform programme) in the United Kingdom.

Joint Planning across the Health/Social Services Boundary since 1946 by Paul Bridgen

This paper reviews the development of post-war policy on the joint planning of health and social services for older people in the context of broader theoretical ideas about inter-organisational collaboration. It identifies the lack of organisational homogeneity and the absence of domain consensus across the health/social services boundary as the main obstacles to progress. However, the paper further suggests that, if these problems are to be properly understood, the broader policy context within which joint planning took place must also be investigated. In this regard, the article suggests that central government's attempts to encourage joint planning since the 1960s have repeatedly been hampered by distrust among local agencies of its more general policy intentions in this area.

Conceptual Issues in Inter-Agency Collaboration by Wendy Ranade & Bob Hudson

Inter-agency collaboration - or partnership as it now commonly termed - is central to New Labour's agenda, but the general support for a partnership approach conceals disputes about definitions and approaches. This article begins by examining the shift to more complex and ambitious partnerships in health, social care and regeneration, which require new modes of governance. The three main modes - market, hierarchy and network - are briefly described and contrasted, and located within the recent history of public service development. It is argued that they are best seen as overlain and co-existing, resulting in a hybrid mode of governance which is characterised by tension and contradiction. The article goes on to discuss the issues this raises for real partnerships in trying to understand the collaborative imperative and the barriers to its effective achievement. Although the network mode has its attractions, there are complex issues of membership, management and culture which need to be addressed. It is concluded that hierarchy, markets and networks will co-exist better where each acknowledges its own limits and the strengths of others.

Joint Working: The Health Service Agenda by Caroline Glendinning & Anna Coleman

The purpose of this article is to examine the policy and practice of collaboration between health and local government from a health services perspective. Within this remit, the authors primarily focus on the area of primary care. Four key elements of the post-1997 policy context are discussed: the move from GP fund holding to Primary Care Groups and Trusts (PCG/Ts); a shift from treating to preventing illness; a drive for implementation by central government; and an emphasis on collaboration. Within this broad context, there are a number of factors which may support enhanced collaboration: the size, scope, responsibilities and budgets of PCG/Ts may well provide an organisational framework which is supportive of joint working. However, the 'Berlin Wall' between health and social care has proved to be enduring, and there are aspects of the post-1997 policy context which will continue to inhibit effective joint working, in particular centrally designed performance management systems and the dominance by GPs of PCG/Ts.

Joint Working: The Local Government Agenda by Stephanie Snape

The Health Action Zone Initiative: Lessons from Plymouth by Michael Cole

The article considers the impact of the Health Action Zone (HAZ) in Plymouth through a theory-based evaluation that combines theories of change and realistic evaluation. The study assesses the impact of 37 projects sponsored by this HAZ. The extent to which these projects used a realistic evaluation/theories of change framework and achieved their objectives are evaluated. The impact of these projects on the three main objectives of Plymouth HAZ - developing partnership working; modernising the care system; and tackling health inequalities - is assessed and explanations for the success or failure of specific projects are identified.

Overcoming the Desire for Misunderstanding Through Dialogue by Paul Hoggett

The emotional and psychological aspects of joint working are examined in this article, providing a powerful explanation for the continuing difficulties in achieving joined up government. Drawing on the sociology of community, psycho-dynamics of intergroup behaviour and theories of identity and difference, the author argues that New Labour's vision of an inclusive, consensual, community is inherently flawed; that conflict is a necessary and fundamental aspect of social relations. Indeed, 'splitting' and 'exclusion' are features of geographical, professional and occupational communities. And concepts such as 'relationships-in-the-mind' are valuable in understanding how identities are formed and maintained, and how patterns of conflict, hostility, misunderstanding and non-cooperation develop. Splitting and exclusion are important processes in building group identity, but they can also significantly undermine attempts to develop collaboration between agencies. The answer is for groups to engage in 'conflictual dialogue', addressing openly the misunderstandings created by group identities.

Leading and Managing at the Boundary: Perspectives Created by Joined Up Working by Mike Broussine

Based on a process of action inquiry, this article reflects on the capacities that chief executives need in order to engage effectively with 'joined up' working. It begins by examining the paradoxical feelings that chief executives can hold about their roles - feeling both powerful and powerless at the same time, for example. By adopting the notion of boundary, it is possible to understand more about the complexities that chief executives need to work with. These boundaries are emotional as much as they are structural. They imply a duality in the role as the chief executive works with the shifting relationships between the organisation and its external world, between organisational and political leadership, and between 'knowing' and 'not knowing'. To be able to work at the boundary, there is a premium on the capacities for sense-making through systemic analysis, for maintaining personal perspective and for seeing leadership as synonymous with learning. In the end, leading at the boundary challenges the chief executive to think from time to time about what he or she stands for as a person.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 29.2

Toothless Tigers? Councillor Perceptions of New Scrutiny Arrangements in Welsh Local Government by Rachel Ashworth

Overview and scrutiny committees have been introduced in England and Wales as part of constitutional arrangements designed to improve local accountability. This article presents a conceptual framework for the evaluation of scrutiny arrangements based on five variables which have been identified as impediments to parliamentary scrutiny. A survey of Welsh councillors suggests that they perceive 'resources and technical support', 'one-party dominance', and 'the relationship between scrutiny and the executive' as factors which may influence the effectiveness of local scrutiny. The paper concludes that these findings have important implications for the extent to which political management reforms can enhance local accountability

Against the System? Women in Elected Local Government in Japan by Catherine Bochel, Hugh Bochel, Masashi Kasuga and Hideko Takeyasu

Despite having a high level of voting by women, Japan has a poor record of female representation in elected government at both central and local levels. This article examines the position in local government and seeks to explore a number of possible explanations for the situation. It draws upon both theoretical and empirical work and identifies a variety of cultural, social and political barriers to women seeking election for local government. The article concludes that there are growing pressures for change including from outside the current mainstream of Japanese politics.

Re-Engaging Citizens and Councils: The Importance of the Councillor to Enhanced Citizen Involvement by Colin Copus

This article results from a number of research projects exploring councillor attitudes towards citizen participation and the role of the party group in local democracy. It considers how the cornerstone of the local government modernisation agenda - re-engaging citizens and communities with the councils that represent them - rests on councillors' responses to an increased participatory element in local representative democracy. Citizens wishing to influence local political decision-making have a number of methods available to them. It is not whether citizens see these tools as effective methods of influencing their councillors that matters; rather that councillors, as holders of power, view them as providing citizens with a clear and legitimate ability to influence the political processes and are thus willing to be influenced by their use. The article shows that the councillor's political affiliation is an indicator of attitudes towards citizen participation in local political decision-making.

Researching Local Government Using Electronic Surveys by Gareth Enticott

E-government is a theme central to the modernisation of public services and local government in the UK. An unintended consequence of the growth of ICTs is the potential for electronic research methods to replace traditional techniques, potentially resulting in efficiency savings for both researcher and researched. Their viability, however, remains untested. The article reports on the results of two related research exercises involving e-methods in local government research. Response rates from three different survey methods - internet, email and post Ð are compared. Whilst ICT based surveys proved to be effective research tools, the article also highlights problems of technological compatibility and sample bias. Poor ICT skills, out of date hardware and software and deficient ICT working practices were also experienced, particularly among elected members. These problems may also potentially prove to be a barrier in creating more joined up service delivery and raise questions relating to the pursuit of broader e-government goals.

New Public Management in Dutch Local Government by G. Jan Van Helden and E. Pieter Jansen

This article investigates the adoption of New Public Management (NPM) in Dutch local government. According to Hood's concept of NPM, it will show the extent to which Dutch municipalities have adopted businesslike instruments and styles. Following Pollitt's framework on studying public management changes, a distinction will be made between changes in ideology, instruments, practices and impacts. The article concludes that, unlike ideological and instrumental innovations, the evidence for NPM-like practices and impacts is limited. To put it crudely, a lot of apparent changes in Dutch local government seem to be only skin-deep.

Some Lessons from Using PFI for School Building Projects by Rob Hall, Maryanne Heafey and David King

This article describes some lessons gained from observing the developments of PFI projects for provision of school buildings. The research, which was primarily based on participant observation methodology, aims to identify key issues relevant to the effective management of such projects. It also attempts to investigate ways in which the PFI process may be changing in this area. Issues covered in the research include motivation, staffing, ownership of the asset, innovation, local democracy and various financial matters. It is observed that some changes in practice in employing the PFI in this area have tended to move it back in the direction of conventional procurement.

Subnational Lobbying and Structural Funds: A French-Scottish Comparison by Adrian Van Den Hoven and John B. Sutcliffe

This article examines subnational actors' engagement with the European Union's structural funds, and whether these actors are significant in this policy sector. It examines this question by comparing one French regional council with one set of Scottish local authorities. It concludes that there are considerable similarities between the subnational actors studied, in spite of differences in their location and the constitutional structure within which they are located. The subnational actors have unilaterally developed a capacity for engaging in the policy sector. In both cases, however, this engagement is not evidence of a 'by-passing' of the central government. Instead, the subnational authorities have worked alongside central government departments to achieve their goals.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 29.1

Options for Change: Mayors, Cabinets or the Status Quo? by Nirmala Rao

The concept of local authorities providing 'community leadership' lies at the heart of the Blair government's modernisation agenda. The Local Government Act, 2000 embodied three models of political leadership to support this new community leadership role. To date, a number of authorities have held referendums for mayoral or cabinet systems of local leadership, with some having gone on to elect a mayor. This paper reviews the new executive structures and, based on surveys of public attitudes, explores public receptiveness to the options, comparing it with councillors' own responses. The consequences of adopting a cabinet or mayoral model are examined, together with their implications for officer-member relationships within the decision-making process.

More Tinkering with Local Government Finance by Stephen J. Bailey

This article provides a critical appraisal of the recent consultation papers on local government finance for England and Scotland. Neither consultation paper considers how the need for the provision of public finance from central to local governments can be minimised. Adopting a strategic approach to local government structure, functions and finance, this article demonstrates how the need for intergovernmental transfers can be minimised and financial autonomy restored to local governments. It argues that central government pays unnecessarily large transfers to local authorities, with the result that the various revenue sources are 'back to front' and contrary to the Council of Europe's European Charter of Local Self-Government.

The Development of Total Quality Management in the Personal Social Service: Realities, Limitations and Opportunities within the Modernising Agenda? by David Watson

This paper considers the impact of quality approaches within the personal social services over the last decade. In particular it examines how applicable private sector approaches to quality, such as Total Quality Management, are in the public and personal social services. Both the hard and soft tools of Total Quality Management are critically considered in terms of their relevance and ability to modernise service provision. In the context of the managerial discourse presently dominating the public sector, it is argued that the hard tools of Total Quality Management, such as performance measurement and review, will only add to managerial control; whilst the soft tools of empowerment and cultural change will lose their critical effect. It is the contention of this paper that unless the current Labour government's Modernising Services Policy succeeds in democratising the process of developing quality then it will only add to the managerial agenda at the expense of improving service provision.

Performing for the 'Customer': Managing Housing Benefit Operations across Organisational Boundaries by Mick Marchington, Fang Lee Cooke and Gail Hebson

Attempts to introduce a new managerialism into local authorities have taken place consistently and continuously over the last 20 years in an effort to secure lower costs as well as performance improvements. Most of this activity has involved the use of private sector providers. This paper reviews the development of a partnership between the housing department of a London borough and a large, private sector contractor that took over the running of this service several years ago. Drawing upon data collected over an 18-month period, three aspects of the relationship between the two parties are examined: performance levels, opportunities for inter-organisational learning, and the experience of work. The conclusion is that there have been few gains for any of the stakeholders from this process, largely due to the complexities involved in managing contractual relations in this area.

Harnessing Social Capital: Some Lessons From Rural England by Colin C. Williams

Attempts to harness social capital currently follow the 'macro-level' route of developing the present range of community-based groups rather than the 'micro-level' route of facilitating one-to-one reciprocity. To evaluate the implications of harnessing social capital in this manner, this paper draws upon case study evidence from rural England. It shows that community-based groups are used primarily as sociability vehicles for higher income populations. Lower income households, perceiving these groups to be for people other than them, instead rely on one-to-one reciprocal exchange that they use to access material support. However, given that a large minority of these lower income households is unable to access one-to-one reciprocity, the paper concludes by outlining various policy initiatives that can develop their social capital by this micro-level route.

Local Authorities, Business and LA21: A Study of East Midlands Sustainable Development Partnerships by Ian Worthington, Dean Patton and Ian Lindley

Following the Earth Summit in 1992, most UK local authorities have pursued sustainable development through Local Agenda 21 (LA21) partnerships. However, few academic or practitioner studies have examined the degree to which partnership processes are suitable for LA21. Local Agenda 21 seeks to be inclusive of all community interests and stresses the need to involve local businesses. This paper reports on research undertaken between 1998 and 1999 examining the proposition that partnership arrangements may inhibit business involvement with LA21. While the study suggests that a partnership approach to LA21 may not deter business involvement, partnership structures and processes appear to be critical in engaging and sustaining business participation, particularly among SMEs. Local authorities need to be sensitive to private sector perceptions of the LA21 process and to consider alternative methods of engaging the business community in the search for a cross-sector approach to local sustainable development.

IN PRACTICE - Joining Policy with Implementation in Central Government: The Approach to E.Government by Janice Morphet

IN PRACTICE - Modernising the Council: A Personal Reflection by Paul Smith

Abstracts of articles in Issue 28.4

Strategic Planning in Local Government: A Study of Organisational Impact and Effectiveness by Nicola Bolton and Steve Leach

Strategic planning in British local government has enjoyed a renaissance over the past ten years, but little attention has been paid to the effectiveness of strategies at the local level. Strategic effectiveness can be assessed in terms of the success of the strategy in attracting resources (current and/or capital), its influence on existing programmes and as a vehicle for wider cultural change. This article interprets evidence from a case study of Cardiff City Council in the 1990-95 period, analysing the strategic effectiveness of three corporate strategies involving economic development, environment and the city centre respectively. The results are interpreted within a framework that portrays chief officers as 'bureau-shapers', influenced by (non-instrumental) values as well as (instrumental) interests. The resilience of 'departmentalism' is highlighted as a key factor in explaining the differential effectiveness of the three strategies.

The Role(s) of County Councillors: An Evaluation by Michael Cole

This article considers the role(s) of county councillors in the context of the contemporary reform agenda. This study incorporates an analysis of the relevant academic literature, however the conclusions are based on interviews with county councillors in Devon. The responses are used to draw a distinction between community focused and more traditional members. In addition, conclusions are drawn about the extent to which their behaviour matched the government's notion of the model councillor under the reformed political management structures.

Between the Welfare State and Local Government Autonomy by Tore Hansen and Jan Erling Klausen

Upon what objectives and ideological considerations have the Norwegian parliament developed its policies vis-à-vis local government during the second half of the twentieth century? Have the reforms and decisions made in parliament contributed to increased central control of local policy-making, or have local political authorities been given more powers and autonomy in deciding on local affairs? To what extent have ideological differences between political parties made any impression on the policies adopted? These are the major issues to be addressed in this study of debates and decisions over local government affairs in the Norwegian parliament since the late 1940s. It is observed that the parliament's policies have become increasingly centralised in terms of putting restrictions on the discretion of local decision-makers in acting according to their own preferences. The study also reveals rather clear and stable ideological divisions across the major political parties as far as policies towards local government are concerned.

Mayoral Referendums and Elections by Colin Rallings, Michael Thrasher and David Cowling

The principle of directly elected mayors forms a key part of the Labour government's strategy to modernise local democracy and strengthen accountability. First applied to London, the government has sought to extend the institution, allowing local referendums to determine whether the public favours the principle or not. This article examines the state of public opinion regarding elected mayors before reporting on the outcome of referendums held since the 2001 general election. We then consider the results of mayoral elections, specifically addressing issues of electoral participation, legitimation and partisan support. In conclusion, we consider whether its experience with both referendums and mayoral elections may have affected the government's enthusiasm for further expansion of this institution across the local government system.

Rethinking Leadership in Local Government: The Place of 'Feminine' Styles in the Modernised Council by Mike Broussine and Pam Fox

The focus of this article is on the quality and nature of local authority leadership. Local government leadership is male-dominated and appears to be stuck in a mould that is associated with orthodox male views that emphasise operational management rather than transformational leadership. The study shows that traditional views of leadership prevail among elected members, but such views are thought to run counter to the new approaches required for modernisation. As a result it is likely that the types of leadership and skills that are needed to transform local authorities are under-utilised. The study concludes by calling for the development of new models of leadership which capitalise on the talents of both men and women. Public Sector Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Case Studies from Local Government by Dean Bartlett and Pauline Dibben This article draws together the literatures around innovation and entrepreneurship in the public sector and presents a detailed discussion of the nature of public entrepreneurship based upon 12 case studies of innovation in local government. The article identifies two important and distinctive aspects of public entrepreneurship which relate to the independent roles of a 'champion' and their 'sponsor' and which combine to constitute entrepreneurial government. The analyses suggest that it is useful to distinguish between at least two types of entrepreneurial government which focus upon external public needs and internal managerial empowerment respectively. The article concludes by considering how each of these models deals with the conflict and risk which we see as necessarily associated with innovation in the public sector and how each of them is differentially responsive to different stakeholders, both inside and outside of the innovating organisation.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 28.3

Prelims & Editorial:

Central-Local Relations Since the Layfield Report by George Jones and John Stewart

The article reviews the developments in central-local relations since the Layfield Report in 1976. It starts from the Layfield analysis of the confusion about where responsibility lay for decisions on local government services, spending and taxing. It identifies a number of key changes - increased powers of intervention by central government, and its growing involvement in the internal working of local authorities - by both the Conservative government of 1979-97 and the present Labour government. It identifies a current tension between the government's expressed commitment to local democratic renewal and its increasing central control, concluding that the confusion identified by Layfield remains unresolved.

Intergovernmental Relations in Scotland Post-Devolution by Neil McGarvey

Central-local relations in Scotland pre-devolution were different to a degree, but the overall substance and rationale behind them tended to be very similar to those in England. This article outlines post-devolution developments in Scotland. As in England, 'partnership' has dominated the rhetoric of central politicians and policy-makers. This has masked significant differences in approach to central-local relations. The Scottish Executive has focused on central-local relations as a topic in its own right, regulatory oversight arrangements are less heavy-handed and the new parliament has increased transparency. Despite its more 'light touch' approach, the executive has successfully imposed its agenda on Scottish local government. Attention is however beginning to focus on 'delivery'. Given the non-executant nature of the executive, this will increase its focus on local councils. Failure to deliver will impose serious strains on the much-hyped central-local partnership. Central Grants and Local Spending in Britain: A Reappraisal of the Post-Layfield Period by Arthur Midwinter and Paul Carmichael Central grants have long been regarded as key financial instruments for controlling and directing local spending in Britain, and the drift to centralisation of funding has increased their importance. This article shows that a consistent pattern of reducing the percentage of funding by grants results in an intermittent pattern of growth and reduction in spending. However, when grant is growing in real terms, higher local taxes result, even if the grant percentage is being reduced. This suggests that grant manipulation only delivers spending reductions in the short term, as the constraints of incrementalism on budget choices lead to politically unacceptable outcomes, and thus a system of high grant dependency needs competent management by government.

From Guided Democracy to Multi-Level Governance: Trends in Central-Local Relations in the Nordic Countries by Harald Baldersheim and Krister Ståhlberg

The Nordic model of governance has contradictory features as it is driven both by a passion for equality and a desire to enhance local self-government. Local governments account for around two-thirds of all public spending. Traditionally, a hierarchical, prefectural model of supervision has served to integrate the local and national levels of the Nordic polities. The hierarchical features of integration have been reduced and new instruments of fuzzy co-ordination developed. In response to fiscal crises and EU membership more contractual central-local relations are emerging. Relations are changing less in Norway than in Finland and Sweden, due to an economic boom and the 'no' to EU membership. Central-local relations are not only increasingly of a multi-level governance character, they are also multi-layered in nature: traditional styles and methods persist alongside new approaches, making central-local relations more complex despite efforts to simplify governance. This is above all true for Norway.

Central Control over Local Government - A Western European Comparison by Michael Goldsmith

This article reviews the way in which central government control over municipal government has changed across Western Europe over the last 30 years. Having outlined the different ways in which central governments can exercise control over local government both formally and informally, the article examines the changing experience in unitary, federal and quasi-federal countries in Western Europe. It also considers the impact on intergovernmental relations of the development of the European Union. The article concludes by suggesting that forms of central control have changed in recent years, involving a shift from direct control and intervention to more indirect control exercised through regulation.

Central-Local Financial Relations in South Africa by Robert Cameron

This article analyses central-local financial relations in South Africa. The first part develops a framework for decentralisation. The article then traces the history of local government finance during the apartheid era. There are two broad views on how to finance local government in South Africa. One is that it should primarily be self-financing; the alternative viewpoint is that local government should receive a substantially increased portion of the tax revenue. The article concludes that despite the greater constitutional status of local government, the Department of Finance's historically centralist view towards local government persists, and local government finance, and with it local government autonomy, is being centralised slowly.

Between Rhetoric and Reality: Does the 2001 White Paper Reverse the Centralising Trend in Britain? by Vivien Lowndes

This article assesses the government's claim that the White Paper, Strong Local Leadership - Quality Public Services (2001), reverses the centralising trend of the previous 20 years. It is argued that the 'confessions and concessions' of the White Paper do not actually represent a reduction of centralism or any enhancement of local government autonomy. Where controls are relaxed, these are primarily managerial rather than political; delivery rather than democracy is the primary focus of attention. Increasingly sophisticated approaches to performance management signal both a new form of centralism and a challenge to the traditional bilateral model of central-local relations.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 28.2

Community Elections for Regeneration Partnerships: A New Deal for Local Democracy? by Keith Shaw and Gill Davids

The health of local democracy in the UK is being undermined by the very low turnouts in local government elections. As the recent government pilot schemes for changing the conduct of local elections have recognised, there is an urgent need to get people more involved at the local level, to reconnect voters with the local political system and to help reduce the level of cynicism towards local government. However, there is one area of local electoral politics in which there are clear signs of democratic renewal: turnouts are up, candidates are well-known and clearly identify with their community, young people and minority ethnic communities have a voice and local people are interested and enthused by a distinctively 'local' brand of politics. This area is the 'non-statutory' community elections increasingly used within the New Deal for Communities (NDC) regeneration initiative. This article examines the experience of community elections in NDC areas - particularly focussing on Newcastle's West Gate - and argues that the elections provide examples of good practice and innovation that could be used to enhance the conduct of local government elections. Moreover, community elections could also make a positive contribution to revitalising the overall health of local democracy by providing an 'complementary' channel of representation to that provided by elected local councillors.

Understanding Multi-Sectoral Regeneration Partnerships as a Form of Local Governance by Rebekah Southern

'Partnership has become a central feature of a new model of local governance, both creating and reflecting changing relationships between the three spheres of the state, the 'market' and civil society'. As such, this article sets out to examine the essence of partnership as a form of local governance, located specifically within the context of community regeneration strategies. Drawing attention to the fact that there are many models of partnership, it will outline three conceptual lenses for analysing partnership arrangements - power, trust and democratic implications. It will conclude that a richer understanding of the process may gleaned by applying each lens to the different models of partnership that may exist.

Modernising Local Government: A Role for Parish and Town Councils by Graham Pearce and Sheila Ellwood

Recent initiatives for modernising local government have ignored the potential contribution of parish and town councils. This article critically examines English parish and town councils in the context of the current debate about the need for government to be more responsive to community needs. It considers measures to enhance the capacity of these grassroots councils by recalibrating the responsibilities and resources between tiers of local government. It concludes by setting out possible reforms to facilitate the contribution of these local councils to the modernising agenda as both representatives of the community and potential providers of local services.

Evaluating the Best Value Pilot Programme: Measuring 'Success' and 'Improvement' by Howard Davis and Steve Martin

In 2000 new 'Best Value' duties were placed on local government, seeking continuous improvement in local public services. This article draws upon our experience of evaluating the Best Value pilot programme, which took place ahead of implementation of the legislation. The results of the pilot programme influenced the Best Value guidance, demonstrated that the Best Value framework can deliver improvements and helped to shape ministerial expectations about the likely speed of change. However, the challenges associated with measuring the extent and level of service improvement with precision have a number of important implications for the future development of the regime.

Political Modernisation and the Environmental Question: The Case for Strategic Planning by Andrew Blowers

The contemporary emphasis on collaboration, partnership and participation that characterises ecological modernisation provides an interpretation of sustainable development in which economic growth and environmental protection are mutually compatible goals. At the same time the political modernisation of local government has undermined local democratic structures and replaced them with new forms of local and regional governance which are more centralised, less representative and less democratic. A key element of modernisation has been the emphasis on forms of strategic planning at local and regional levels, which have tended to privilege economic over environmental and other policy goals. In the process, sustainable development, despite its elevation as a fundamental policy objective, has tended to become marginalised. This analysis advocates a form of strategic planning that integrates policy sectors and spatial scales. Its realisation suggests the need for a reinvigoration of democratic processes and a commitment to greater equity. Such a transformation is necessary if sustainable forms of development are to be realised.

Local Fiscal Strategies in the Netherlands: An Empirical Analysis by Mattheus C. Wassenaar and Daan P. van Soest

One of the most important possible sources of conflict of interest between central and local governments is difference in political preferences with respect to, for example, income redistribution. If local governments are of a different political composition than the central government, they may be inclined to reinforce or weaken the redistribution policies as pursued by the central government. We empirically test whether local governments in the Netherlands do pursue income redistribution policies over and above the central government's redistribution policy and we find that the distribution of the local tax burden over the various household types differs according to the political composition of the local council.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 28.1

Leadership in Urban Governance: The Mayor of London by David Sweeting

This article discusses leadership in urban governance by examining the Mayor of London. It uses a conceptual framework of four elements: the external environment to local leadership; the institutional arrangements in which leaders operate; the local environment; and the personal characteristics of leaders. It is argued that the Mayor of London is 'strong' within the Greater London Authority, but 'weak' in formal terms in the governance of London. In order to be effective in London governance, the Mayor needs to facilitate the co-operation of others in order to wield power. The area of negotiation of the leadership of the Mayor of London is broad and takes place between the Mayor and the organisations which form the governance of London.

A Conceptual and Practical Framework of Measuring Performance of Local Authorities in Financial Terms: Analysing the Case of Israel by Abraham Carmeli

This study investigates the theme of performance measurement among local authorities in Israel. Using a broad approach, it deals conceptually with performance measurement and financial performance of local authorities in Israel as compared to several Western countries, and explores the implications for accountability and public trust in government. This study proposes and empirically tests a model for measuring the financial performance of local authorities in Israel. It demonstrates how to design effective performance measures in two areas: (a) financial strength/weakness, and (b) level of municipal development of the local authorities. By so doing, the article suggests advancing performance measurement in the governmental sector by using financial data from annual financial reports.

Unresolved Responsibilities: Exploring Local Democratisation and Sustainable Development through a Community-Based Waste Reduction Initiative by Celia Robbins and Janet Rowe

In reporting on the potential contribution of a community-based waste reduction initiative to sustainable development, our object is to examine the role that such initiatives may play in community regeneration and participative democracy. In the context of changing relationships between government and the individual, we ask whether communities are able, and willing, to accept the self-governing role which is being pressed upon them. We also question the extent to which responsibility for achieving sustainable development can be devolved. The Waste Reduction in the Community Project ran in five diverse communities in Bristol and South Gloucestershire between 1995 and 1998. We examine the goals of the initiative, its procedures and the activities within it; and we review the kinds of achievements that might comprise 'success' in the context of sustainable development, both for the communities themselves and in a wider context. We discuss the outputs and outcomes of the project in relation to these; and reflect on the value of such initiatives in the current climate of modernisation of local government and community regeneration.

Joined-up Government in Practice: A Case Study of Children's Needs in Sheffield by Paola Signoretta and Massimo Craglia

'Joined-up government' has been a policy thrust characterising much of the first term of the Labour government. The last four years have seen a flourish of area-based and local partnership initiatives. Information and IT are seen as crucial to facilitate joined-up government and improved service delivery at both central and local level. Ambitious targets are thus set to make all dealings with government deliverable electronically by 2005. This article examines data sharing in a local partnership, using as an example the preparation of the Children's Service Plan 2000-2003 in the city of Sheffield, setting out the national policy background, with particular reference to children's services plans; introducing the project; discussing the results obtained in the data collection exercise, and concluding that the organisational and cultural change necessary to share information effectively require time, and above all a period of relative stability to mature and take hold.

Local Government and the Arts by Clive Gray

The arts have traditionally been seen as a minor policy concern for local authorities. Recent developments, however, have served to give the arts a new importance as a contributor to a range of policy initiatives within local government. This new importance has arisen as a result of the 'attachment' of the arts to other policy concerns. This article discusses why the arts have been utilised in this fashion and what consequences have arisen from this 'attachment' strategy for the arts in local government circles. The benefits that are associated with increased attention being focused upon the arts need to be weighed against the costs of so doing in terms of the core concerns of the policy area.

Explaining the Birth of the Local Government Association by Tom Entwistle

In the summer of 1995 the three local authority associations that had provided English and Welsh local authorities with their national representation voted to merge and form the Local Government Association. This article explains the merger as dependent upon the coincidence of three conditions. The first was a positive belief in the benefits of merger shared by the leaderships of the three associations. The second was a disruption of the status quo prompted by the Conservative government's proposals for local government reorganisation. The third was a change in Labour Party policy away from the defence of a dedicated metropolitan association to a preference for a unified cross-party association.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 27.4

Executive and Scrutiny Reforms: The Agenda and its Impact at Devon County Council by Michael Cole

This article evaluates the shift to an executive and scrutiny model in local government by assessing the changes at Devon County Council. Interviews were used to evaluate support for the changes and identify the key issues and problems. Most members had little enthusiasm for the reforms, support for the changes was dependent on the loyality of Liberal Democrat backbenchers towards the leadership and central government's legislative agenda. The analysis revealed substantial problems with the operation of the reformed structure and suggested that the changes might fail to deliver the benefits expected by central government.

The Role of Storytelling and Narrative in a Modernisation Initiative by Nick Llewellyn

This article addresses the significance of storytelling and narrative in a modernisation initiative. It examines how storytelling enabled a certain 'thrust' to be maintained in the project work. Shared stories of bureaucratic failings are analysed. These served a number of functions, one of which was to enable a clear sense of progress or modernisation to be established in the present. To maintain this sense of progress and modernisation individuals had to smooth over potential discontinuities, such as the re-emergence of cross-departmental conflict, in stories that stressed growth and learning. The article examines these narrative accomplishments and shows how they played an active role in sustaining the authority's self-image as a 'modernising council'. By examining the inter-relationship between the political project of modernisation and the individual project of constructing narrative accounts of organisational progress, the article also reveals subtle mechanisms of control operating between central and local government.

The Theory of Market Failure and Equity - Based Policy Making in Contemporary Local Government by Brian Dollery and Joe Wallis

Over the past several decades local government has become increasingly complex. Accordingly, local government policy makers can no longer simply rely on intuitive reasoning in the formulation of policy and are now obliged to draw on conceptual frameworks developed in the social sciences, including economics. One such framework is the market failure paradigm which has previously focused exclusively on the question of economic efficiency and local public goods in its application to the local government milieu. This article seeks to extend this model to include sources of market failure which derive from questions of equity as well as efficiency.

Informing Policy Making: New Approaches to Analysing the 2001 Census by Chris Gardiner

This article demonstrates how the Samples of Anonymised Records (SARs) and Customised Output from the 2001 UK Population Census can be used to supplement existing sets of information and data sources available to central and local government. It argues that these data sources can provide an important asset for policy making and resource allocation in local government. The SARs from the 1991 Census could be used to gain a provisional evaluation and operational experience before the release of the 2001 dataset. This approach is applied to the analysis of housing need to provide an illustrative example.

Social Landlords' Responses to Neighbour Nuisance and Anti-Social Behaviour: From the Negligible to the Holistic? by Caroline Hunter and Judy Nixon

Since the early 1990s, reports on topics ranging from neighbourhood renewal and new demand to social exclusion have highlighted the damaging effects of anti-social behaviour. Local authorities are urged to develop a 'holistic' response to anti-social behaviour. Recent research into the effectiveness of legal remedies reveals a tension between attempts to address the underlying causes of anti-social behaviour and the government's emphasis on legal action to control and punish perpetrators. Drawing on this research, the article examines why many landlords are still evicting perpetrators rather than dealing with the underlying causes of their behaviour. The article concludes by outlining the barriers that landlords and other agencies must overcome in order to develop a holistic approach to the problem.

The Upliftment of South African Local Government? by Robert Cameron

Theoretically, South Africa has one of the most advanced systems of local government in the world with its powers and functions being constitutionally entrenched. Two different conceptual models of local government were used to assess how autonomous this local government system is in practice. The autonomous model views local government as a clearly separated sphere of government, while the integrationist model sees greater functional interdependence between the various spheres of government. The article concludes that there are different views of decentralisation within the state. On the one hand there are local government reform measures by the state to position itself within the global economy that reflects a more integrationist view of local government. On the other hand there are elements of the autonomous model such as attempts to empower local government through the promotion of local democracy.

Book Reviews

Index to Volume 27

Abstracts of articles in Issue 27.3

Modernisation, Democratisation and Community Governance by Helen Sullivan

This article examines the New Labour agenda for the governance of localities, focusing on three central themes: community leadership, improving the management of public services and building social capital. Potential areas of policy tension and conflict are identified between these themes. The different forms of Community Governance are outlined and their coverage of the three themes described. This helps to elaborate and explain the tensions that exist within the New Labour agenda. The article then specifies the key challenges facing elected local government if modernisation and democratisation is to be delivered through a framework of Community Governance.

Community Politics, Representation and the Limits of Deliberative Democracy by John Meadowcroft

Community Politics has been a political strategy of the Liberal Party, now the Liberal Democrats, since 1970. It involves a critique of traditional representational relationships and argues for a participatory democracy based upon deliberation to build consensus out of competing interests. Whilst the associated campaigning techniques have made the third party an important force in local government, this article uses new empirical evidence to assess the success of the strategy in transforming representational relationships and extending popular participation in local government. It is argued that its success in respect of these objectives has been limited, principally because of popular disenchantment with political parties and the inherent tensions and limitations that accompany popular participation in deliberative democratic structures.

Local Government and Service Users: Empowerment through User-Led Innovation? by Pauline Dibben and Dean Bartlett

Under the Best Value regime, the government requires local authorities to involve the public in determining the provision of services. Indeed, the Best Value legislation provides a legal basis for consulting citizens and the local community in relation to better management of local government functions. The guidance on Best Value also encourages local authorities to place performance management within in a community strategy framework. These combined actions will, it is hoped, result in more innovative, effective and efficient provision. Arguably, however, the success of increased participation will be influenced by how and why the public are involved. This study draws on case study research to ask whether involving the public does result in innovative changes and to what extent those involved are empowered through the process, concluding that success for both the authority and service users is influenced by factors such as cost structures and whether the original intent includes careful consideration of how those involved might benefit from the process.

The Role of Research in 'Modern' Local Government by Ian Sanderson, Janie Percy-Smith and Lynne Dowson

The local government 'modernisation agenda' has important implications for research in local government, a function which has been neglected in recent years. This article argues that modernisation, especially Best Value, requires authorities to develop as 'intelligent learning organisations' and to build the capacity for research to support processes of learning and improvement. Based on the findings of recent research, the article discusses lessons for local government in enhancing research capacity and utilisation, referring both to internal factors and to the potential for collaborative arrangements. It is concluded that central government might do more to assist the development of such capacity but ultimately authorities' approach to research must be developed to support achievement of their defined purpose, role and objectives.

Local Government Partnerships in Urban Management: The Case of South Asia by Richard Slater

The article examines emerging partnerships in local government in South Asia. It argues that public private partnerships at local authority level tend to emerge where existing service deficiencies are greatest and most often involve the private voluntary sector. These partnerships typically function as 'hybrid' concessions where the private operator performs a service and collects a fee but without responsibility for capital investment. Many of the most successful partnerships have operated at the most localised level involving a coalition of stakeholders under local authority co-ordination. However, few partnerships have developed adequate mechanisms for joint planning, management and monitoring of services.

The Upliftment of South African Local Government? by Robert Cameron

Theoretically, South Africa has one of the most advanced systems of local government in the world with its powers and functions being constitutionally entrenched. Two different conceptual models of local government were used to assess how autonomous this local government system is in practice. The autonomous model views local government as a clearly separated sphere of government, while the integrationist model sees greater functional interdependence between the various spheres of government. The article concludes that there are different views of decentralisation within the state. On the one hand there are local government reform measures by the state to position itself within the global economy that reflects a more integrationist view of local government. On the other hand there are elements of the autonomous model such as attempts to empower local government through the promotion of local democracy.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 27.2

Evaluating Equalities by Desmond Bailey and Adrian Jones

Equalities work in local authorities has traditionally been impaired by 'fadism'. Major events have led to flurries of activity, but the real concern is whether this activity sustainable once the initial impetus dies away? Do real changes take place in the way services are provided to (or in the types of service provided for) Britain's Black and minority ethnic communities or is it a merely a case of 'window dressing'? This article looks at the current policy environment within which race equalities issues are located. It supports this task using the empirical case study of the London Borough of Camden in its recent attempt to account for its own performance around equality of opportunity.

Bewitched or Bewildered? 'Facts' and 'Values' in Audit Commission Texts by Jill C Humphrey

The Audit Commission undertakes audits and inspections in relation to local government, housing, social services, education and the health service, and in effect presides over the local governance of welfare. It legitimates its work by reference to a peculiar fact-value nexus which has bewitched many proponents of welfare economics and evidence-based practice and bewildered many councillors and professionals, suggesting that the nexus itself needs to be dissected and deciphered. The focus of this article is on the Commission's work in the sphere of local government in general and social services in particular. A critical appraisal of 'facts' is undertaken in relation to costs, charges, outcomes and performances, whilst a critical appraisal of 'values' is undertaken in relation to economics, politics, ethics and evaluations. It is suggested that there are good reasons for being bewitched and bewildered by the work of the Audit Commission, since it combines quasi-scientific researches with socio-political reforms and operates in the name of both upward accountability to the government and downward accountability to the people, offering a synthesis of virtues and values which is simultaneously irresistible and impossible.

The Impact of Best Value on Local Authority Performance: Evidence from the Welsh Pilots by George Boyne, Julian Gould-Williams, Jennifer Law and Richard Walker

This article provides the first empirical evidence on the impact of Best Value processes on local service quality, costs, efficiency and accountability. Views were obtained from a wide range of personnel involved in the pilot programme in Wales by means of a postal questionnaire and interviews. The evidence shows that so far Best Value has had a positive impact on quality and accountability but little impact on service costs. Perceptions of the impact of Best Value are significantly more positive in authorities that adopted a corporate approach to the pilot process.

Housing Management in Three Metropolitan Local Authorities: The Impact of CCT and Implications for Best Value by Andrew Harries and Peter Vincent-Jones

This article evaluates the impact of CCT for housing management services in three local authorities, examining the extent of any organisational changes and improvements in effectiveness of service provision under the compulsory regime. Despite similarities in respect of tendering procedures, the formal appearance of contractual relationships and the choice of in-house rather than private providers, there were significant differences in the responses to CCT that can only be explained by reference to cultural, political and organisational factors in the local authority environments. The main conclusion is that such varied responses were inevitable in spite of the detailed prescriptions and tight constraints of CCT. The regulation of housing management under best value should, in order to be effective, respect such diversity and encourage flexibility in finding solutions to service delivery problems.

Devolved Budget Making Within Local Authority Housing Departments: Staff Perceptions of Power and Control by Keith Jacobs

The rationale for this article is that limited knowledge of the budgetary process within housing organisations together with the recent changes associated with 'best value' point to a need to better understand the context within which policy decisions are taken. The article investigates the ways in which senior housing and finance officers interpret their work environment, encounter constraints and implement budgets within two metropolitan local authority housing departments in a period leading up to the settlement of the housing revenue account 2000/01. It is argued that in spite of a theoretical commitment to budget devolution for officers working at neighbourhood level the actual practice of budget making is tightly regulated by finance staff working at the centre.

Developments in Albanian Local Government by Douglas Saltmarshe

This article describes the problems associated with the establishment of decentralised local government in post-communist Albania. After presenting some relevant historical and cultural information about Albania, communist and post-communist government structures are described and compared. This is followed by a description of the status, boundaries and powers of the various tiers of local administration and their relation to central government. Analysis of this information draws attention to similarities in structure and organisational culture between the communist periods and the present. It attributes the difficulties in rebuilding state structures to the unfamiliar nature of liberal democratic institutions and the lack of resources available to the new state. The development of local government was constrained by central government policies which resulted in tangled lines of accountability, reductions in funding, restriction of ability to raise taxes and by limiting sectors of responsibility. Despite an increase in democratically elected institutions, central government sought to retain control and inhibit the devolution of power. Poor transparency, lack of accountability and restricted access to information contributed to local government being held in low regard by the general public. The article concludes that it is unproductive to focus assistance on economic stabilisation without commensurate support for the development of democratic institutions.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 27.1

A Mis-signalling Problem? The Troubled Performance Relationship for Credit Unions and Local Government in the UK by Paul Davis and Chris Brockie

This article argues that the development of British credit unions is being held back by the unclear objectives and performance measures set by different external stakeholders. Credit unions are particularly vulnerable to contradictory accountability requirements, because they can serve a number of different socio-economic purposes. They may therefore face multiple lines of managerial and political accountability in a situation where they remain highly dependent on external stakeholders for funding. Survey evidence shows that the measures widely used to gauge credit union performance are not consistent with the policy objectives of the key stakeholders setting them. Taken together, they also fail to provide a balanced scorecard to support effective internal management decision making and external scrutiny. It is contended that key stakeholders need to compensate for the currently skewed performance scorecard with indicators that are sensitive to credit unions' specific objectives and to the stage they have reached in the credit union life cycle of development. Proposals for a wider and more appropriate suite of performance indicators are therefore outlined.

Political Recruitment and Local Representation: The Case of Liberal Democrat Councillors by John Meadowcroft

A case study of Liberal Democrat councillors is used to investigate models of local political recruitment. Quantitative survey data shows that Liberal Democrat councillors match the narrow socio-economic profile of representatives found in all modern democracies. Analysis of qualitative interview data on the recruitment of Liberal Democrat councillors suggests that while some councillors can be characterised as rational actors, judging the costs and benefits of council service, the importance of the informal negotiation between potential recruits and established political actors has been underestimated in accounting for the opportunity essential to local political recruitment.

Urban Civic Worlds: A Conceptual and Empirical Exploration by Gila Menahem

This article addresses the issue of local citizenship in the context of shifting urban structures. Drawing on the literature on modes of responses to local public policy based on Hirschman's (1970) model of Exit, Voice and Loyalty, the study offers the concept of urban civic worlds as an explanatory concept for local citizenship behavioural manifestations. The hypotheses regarding urban civic worlds are tested in a survey in the city of Tel Aviv. Eight types of urban civic worlds are examined. The implications of the multiplicity of urban civic world on the governance in localities is discussed.

The Application of Businesslike Planning and Control in Local Government: A Field Study of Eight Dutch Municipalities by G Jan van Helden and Henk J ter Bogt

The Policy and Management Instruments (PMI) project, an initiative of central government in the Netherlands, aimed at familiarising local authorities with new ways of governance and management. This article is a cross-sectional study of the application of planning and control techniques in eight Dutch municipalities. It addresses five issues: (1) the extent to which the goals of the PMI project have been realised; (2) the information to be included in the planning and control documents; (3) the value of replacing a uniform output-oriented control framework by differentiated control; (4) whether organisational units are more committed to self-developed than to centrally developed control systems; (5) whether success depends not only on the introduction of adequate instruments, but also on other factors. It ends with an attempt to show possible relationships between these issues for the eight municipalities.

Ethics in Local Government: Evaluating Self-Regulation in England and Wales by Alan Doig and Chris Skelcher

Local government in England and Wales is subject to the implementation of the Labour government's 'new ethical framework' legislation. This involves a statutory code of conduct for councillors, local standards committees to promote good practice and external investigative and adjudicative bodies to deal with allegations of misconduct. Prior to this many local authorities had adopted a self-regulatory approach to improving their ethical practice. This article charts the development of non-statutory policy towards standards of conduct - largely due to the generally high ethical standards in councils. A study of councils who have introduced self-regulation through standards committees shows that it provides a positive strategy for strengthening the ethical climate, although there is a role for external verification and, potentially, intervention where councils face structural problems of misconduct and/or corruption. The current creation of a statutory system with powerful investigatory agencies is not justified in the context of levels of misconduct and the experience of self-regulation.

Regional Strategy Making and the New Structures and Processes for Regional Governance by Richard Stephenson and Jenny Poxon

After a period of neglect, regional planning is returning to the political agenda of central government in the UK. The current approach to regional planning in England has, however, been called governing without government and depends on co-operative action between key institutions and consultation with other stakeholders. A study of practices in two English regions (Yorkshire and the Humber and the East Midlands) reveals the emergence of new and potentially more open institutional forms and practices, and a greater commitment to spatial planning for regional development. This research suggests, however, that there are tensions between the agents, institutions, and stated objectives of regional planning which are likely to hinder the achievement of the government's stated goals for the development and planning of the English regions.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 26.4

Managing the Contract: A Transaction Cost Analysis of Externalisation by Ian Kavanagh and David Parker

In the best value environment, local authorities are now investigating alternatives to compulsory competitive tendering. This paper examines the externalisation of the London Borough of Ealing's Technical Services Group between 1994 and 1999, the first local government Technical Services function to be externalised as a whole. The case is discussed in the light of transaction cost theory from economics. The study illustrates the difficulties that arise under local authority competitive tendering where the parties enter into an incomplete contract and rely on mutual goodwill to adjust the contract terms later. The contractor invested in a specific asset, the contract, from which there could be no withdrawal without significant cost. The study confirms that transaction costs can be pervasive in local government contracting, depending upon the nature of the contract and the associated organisational arrangements. Moreover, public sector contracts have an additional hazard, 'political risk', which is not well assimilated into transaction cost economics.

Reformulating Wolfenden? The Roles and Impact of Local Development Agencies in Supporting Voluntary and Community Action in the UK by Stephen P Osborne

This paper reviews the work of Local Development Agencies (LDAs), such as Councils for Voluntary Service and Rural Community Councils in promoting and supporting voluntary and community action in local communities in the UK. Based upon the first substantive study of these bodies since the late 1970s the paper evaluates both their work and the extent of their support in local communities. It then maps this work against the roles delineated for LDAs in the Wolfenden Report, in 1978, and suggests a reformulation of their roles for the new millennium. It concludes by considering the import of these 'reformulated' LDAs for the community governance initiative of the present Labour government.

Developing the Representational Role of Elected Members: Local Involvement, Local Action in a Birmingham Ward by Andrew Coulson and Helen Sullivan

Birmingham, with a population of just under a million, has since the abolition of the West Midlands County Council in 1986 had just one level of elected local government. The city council has a tradition of strong central departments making maximal use of economies of scale - such as the City Engineer's Department which recreated the road network in the 1960s and 1970s, or the Housing Department which gave the city more tower blocks than any city outside London. It grew by taking in and expanding village centres, and this has led to a pattern of well-defined suburbs, not always replicated in the boundaries of the 39 wards from which today the 117 city councillors are elected. These are the largest in the country, with an average population of 25,000, or over 10,000 households.

Battling for the Regions: Local Government Policy Networks and the Reform of the European Structural Funds by Roger Lawrence

The recent reform of the European Structural Funds led to a wide-ranging set of lobbying activities on the part of UK regions which felt their previous allocations were likely to be threatened. Much of this activity took place through existing networks or alliances of networks at a national and transnational level. This paper examines the issues at stake in the reforms, the attitudes of the networks to those issues and the need for networks to have a common focus, adequate resources and effective internal communication structures to be effective.

'What's in it for Women?' The Motivations, Expectations and Experiences of Female Local Councillors in Montreal, Canada and Hull, England by Jacqui Briggs

Based upon in-depth interviews with female councillors from Hull, England and from Montreal, Canada, this article seeks to address the motivations, expectations and experiences of female local councillors. It examines what galvanised these women into political activity, whether or not they encountered any difficulties in their quest to become a councillor and, once elected, how they operate. The key aspects identified by this research include, firstly, the obstacles faced by females in their quest to become local councillors; secondly, the benefits/necessity of having a supportive partner and, thirdly, the concept of the 'dual calibre of councillor', that is, the community representative and the local politico.

The Changing Roles of Local Government in Education by Carol Campbell

This article explores the ongoing debate about the changing roles of local government in education in Britain. It focuses on research evidence from Scotland, especially issues associated with devolving management to schools and reorganising local government. These findings are compared with the debate and evidence about the changing role of local government in education in England and Wales during the past decade. It is suggested that while there has been substantial reform of education and local government throughout Britain, the policies have differed in nature and outcomes north and south of the border.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 26.3

Forum: 'Pushing at a Closed Door': The 1998 Welsh Local Government Review and its Implications for Electing Welsh Councils by Russell Deacon

In March 1998 the Welsh Office launched a Green Paper on 'Local Democracy and Community Leadership'. After an extensive consultation period a White Paper (July 1998) was issued which appeared to leave the door open for further changes to the electoral system. Yet, since this date, the issue of reforming the Welsh electoral system has remained dormant. This paper examines the drive towards modernising electoral arrangements. It discusses the main problems associated with local government electoral system in Wales, what respondents to the Green Paper saw as solutions and how the White Paper sought to deal with them. It concludes by examining the reasons why electoral reform in Wales appears to have been put on the back-burner.

Party Manifestos and Local Accountability: A Content Analysis of Local Election Pledges in Wales by Rachel E Ashworth

Party manifestos are seen as an important instrument for measuring levels of accountability at central government level. In order to establish whether manifestos contribute to local accountability, a content analysis is applied to party manifestos produced for the 1995 Welsh local elections. Evidence demonstrates that during this election campaign local parties in Wales chose to focus upon policies relating to the environment and local government reorganisation, with mainly strategic pledges on social policy areas. Despite the perception of low levels of party politicisation in Wales, the majority of local pledges were found to be detailed and specific. Thus party manifestos provide a sound basis for local political accountability.

Women Councillors and Committee Recruitment by Jean Yule

This article examines the recruitment processes that shaped the patterns of gendered segregation in Labour and Conservative party group hierarchies in two local authorities in the north of England in the late 1980s. The article explores the ways in which women councillors necessarily negotiate the tensions of being a woman in male dominated party groups, and the ways in which these negotiations are mediated by party group differences. The research on which the article is based indicates that during periods of local political change, gains made by women in their party group may be consolidated but may also be eroded.

The Attractiveness of the Seemingly Unattractive: An Israeli Case by Ami Pedahzur and Avraham Brichta

The aim of this article is to analyse what makes local government in Israel, which enjoys only minimal formal power, so attractive to many political parties and other organisations. The article offers a typology of the contestants in the local government electoral arena: old parties, parties attempting to penetrate local government from parliament and parties using local government to enter parliament. The primary goal of every type is then identified: party formation, institutionalisation and survival. From this typology an explanatory model is developed which looks at the local government as a 'linkage agent' from which the national parties can mobilise various important resources thus achieving their primary goals.

Measuring the Efficiency of Spanish Municipal Refuse Collection Services by Núria Bosch, Francisco Pedraja and Javier Suárez-Pandiello

The aim of this article is to analyse the technical efficiency of the refuse collection services in 75 municipalities located in Catalonia, Spain. The analysis has been carried out using a great variety of techniques, both parametric and non-parametric. Although the results naturally differ according to the technique used, they nevertheless are consistent in ranking the units analysed. Finally, we have looked into the relation existing between efficiency and the public or private management of the service. The results seem to support the idea that the framework for competition in which the service is provided could be more relevant than the private-public management dichotomy.

Left and Right Among Local Elites: Comparative Figures from Switzerland, Spain, Germany and the Netherlands by Michiel S de Vries

This paper examines whether or not the classical ideological cleavage - the left-right dimension - is still valid and determines the choices made in politics. It looks at the extent to which the left-right concept features in the views of local elites in four European countries. A strong relation is found between the left-right self-placement of local elites and their party membership, their opinion about income distribution, the role of government and economic growth. The left-right dimension is still relevant in the belief system of local elites, but it does not determine day-to-day decisions. Six factors are discussed which might explain these findings: the validity of this research; the specific characteristics of local-level policy making; differences between politicians and public administrators; the fragmentation of local politics; the theory on latent and manifest ideologies by Bluhm; and the consensus theory of Wildavsky. It is concluded that more research is needed to test the last two theories, because they seem to be the most promising

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 26.2

Power to the Parishes - A (Missed) Opportunity by Sheila Ellwood, Mike Tricker and Piers Waterston

Parish and town councils form the lowest tier of local government in England, but have been left out of government proposals for a new duty for local authorities. The proposed new duty will give local authorities wide-ranging power to promote economic and social well-being. Unlike principal authorities, it is likely that these grass-roots councils will have to rely on their power under s.137 to spend on activities outside their specific powers. This article reviews the findings of a recent national survey which was designed to assess the extent to which parishes are constrained by current s.137 arranagements. An Empirical Survey of Frontier Efficiency Measurement Techniques in Local Government by Andrew Worthington and Brian Dollery Local government in advanced economies is undergoing a period of rapid reform aimed at enhancing its efficiency and effectiveness. Accordingly, the definition, measurement and improvement of organisational performance is crucial. Despite the importance of efficiency measurement in local government it is only relatively recently that econometric and mathematical frontier techniques have been applied to local public services. This paper attempts to provide a synoptic survey of the comparatively few empirical analyses of efficiency measurement in local government. We examine both the measurement of inefficiency in local public services and the determinants of local public sector efficiency. The implications of efficiency measurement for practitioners in local government are examined by way of conclusion.

Changing the 'Front Line' to Meet Citizen Needs by Lucy Gaster and Hans Rutqvist

Public services need to be re-designed to meet citizens' needs and to become more accountable. The role of the 'front line' is crucial in this. It is the pivotal point on the 'see-saw' connecting 'the public' and the 'back line' of national and local public service agencies. This article compares the experience of Sweden and the UK in designing new 'front lines' through 'decentralisation' and 'one-stop shops'. It concludes that these initiatives can help to meet citizen needs and that citizens notice the difference. Committed support from the 'back line' is crucial for success. Active democratic involvement of both politicians and local residents is also essential.

The Local Agenda 21 Issue Commission in Bath and North-East Somerset: Review of a Community Consultation Exercise Towards Sustainability by Janet Rowe

Local authorities in the UK have come under renewed pressure from central government both to adopt Local Agenda 21 and to advance participative democracy. In late 1996/early 1997, the (then) new unitary authority of Bath and North-East Somerset Council set up a Local Agenda 21 Issue Commission to review its 'sustainability' performance and policy development practice with the direct involvement of the community. The way in which the commission was conceived and conducted resulted in difficulties in identifying and carrying out its task. Nonetheless, it kick-started significant steps towards LA 21 within the council, and provided valuable insights into LA 21 implementation, and the nature of meaningful consultation.

Renewal of Local Government in Scandinavia: Effects for Local Politicians by Toini S Floris, Mikael Granberg, Terje Kleven, Stig Montin, Olaf Rieper and Signy Irene Vabo

During the last decade, numerous local government reforms influenced by new public management (npm) ideology have taken place throughout scandinavia. Based on case studies in three scandinavian municipalities, the article discusses the effects of introducing strategic political management on the role of councillors. We observe a conflict between npm-inspired management ideas and a deeply institutionalised, traditional view of councillors as representatives of the citizens, advocating peoples' interest, defining needs, setting priorities and controlling implementation. Across national and local contexts, councillors find that the reforms challenge their traditional role and have strengthened administrative influence. Historical institutionalism seems to be a fruitful concept to understand resistance towards taking on new role models.

The Wheel Turns for Policing and Local Government by John Houghton

The article examines the impact of two main forces, localism and centralism, together with their interaction within a common law legal system, which have influenced professional policing since its inception after 1829. In particular, it assesses the ways these forces have conflicted and in doing so created a police service which although closely related to local government subsequently drifted apart. Now, through the 'partnership approach', developed within the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, local government and policing appear to be re-establishing a closer relationship. In this context, the article examines the significance of the concept of community safety and the partnership approach on the relationships between local government, police authorities and the force itself.

Review Article: McIntosh on Governance and Accountability: A Review Essay by Arthur Midwinter

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 26.1

The Way Forward for Regeneration?: Lessons from the Single Regeneration Budget Challenge Fund by Stephen Hall

The Labour government's embryonic local regeneration agenda is considered in the context of lessons from the SRB Challenge Fund inherited from its Conservative predecessor. It is argued that (under the Conservatives): the SRB process was highly centralised; economic competitiveness was prioritised over social investment; the relationship between resource allocation and need was ambiguous; local partnership working was unequal. Labour has addressed the more obvious flaws of the SRB but has created new ones with the establishment of the Regional Development Agencies. Like the Conservatives, it has missed an opportunity for greater 'localism'.

Rethinking Organisational Learning in Local Government by Russ Vince and Mike Broussine

The article outlines the results of research undertaken with 146 local authorities in England and Wales. There are two aims to this paper. First, to identify some of the ways in which local government understands and puts into practice the notion of organisational learning. Second, to encourage a broader understanding and practice than exists at present. Our research suggests that local authorities have created a self-limiting notion of organisational learning particularly based on performance management and management development imperatives orientated towards the individual employee. We suggest various ways in which authorities might shift the focus from individual to organisational learning.

Issues of Fairness in Recruitment Processes - A Case Study of Local Government Practice by Lynette Harris

Since the 1980s local government recruitment practices have been characterised by the development of procedures designed to promote fairness in employee selection. This article examines recruitment practice in one local authority in terms of its effectiveness in providing fairness in selection and questions its ability to meet the changing demands being placed on recruitment processes. A central argument is that an emphasis on developing recruitment procedures to demonstrate equality of treatment can overlook important social psychological factors. It concludes that although a highly structured approach to employee selection has real advantages in meeting the requirements of equal opportunities it can, paradoxically, result in negative perceptions about its fairness and effectiveness.

The Political Identities of Muslim Local Councillors in Britain by Kingsley Purdam

There are an estimated 160 local councillors in Britain who are Muslim (May 1996). The party breakdown is as follows: 153 Labour, six Liberal, one Conservative. The councillors are concentrated in areas of Muslim population. For example, there were, in May 1996, 12 Muslim councillors on Birmingham City Council and 11 on Bradford City Council. This paper profiles aspects of the identities and political mobilisations of Muslim local councillors in Britain. The paper draws on findings from a broader research project into the nature of Muslim political mobilisations in Britain . In conclusion the paper locates Muslim councillors within the wider local polity and outlines an important research agenda.

The Place of Corporate Ownership and Management in Local Government Anti-Poverty Strategy in Britain by Pete Alcock

This article discusses the issues arising from the corporate ownership and management of anti-poverty activity in local authorities in Britain in the 1990s. It is based upon action research carried out in sample of authorities as part of a project to develop and implement tools for the monitoring and evaluation of anti-poverty activity, and developed in collaboration with the Local Government Anti-Poverty Unit. Issues identified in connection with corporate management include: structural location, democratic control, political leadership, documentation of commitments, financial support, definition and measurement, and consultation and feedback. Evidence of good practice is identified and summarised.

Rent Differentials, Housing Benefit and Management of the Public Housing Stock in the United Kingdom: A Review by C J Mackay

Despite the prevailing emphasis on markets and choice in the public services there has been very little consideration of the way in which local authority rent setting policies can be used to influence the demand for various types of properties. The present government has promised that long delayed proposals for the reform of housing benefit will be brought forward soon. At the same time, social landlords have been increasingly concerned about high rates of turnover in their stock and in some areas low demand leading to abandonment and demolition. In this paper it is argued that greater rent differentials related to quality and location will be necessary to cope with such changes.

Review Articles:

The New Public Management by Janet Newman

Reducing our Dependendence on the Carby Simon Baddeley

The Relevance and Value of Contemporary Social Welfare Policy Analysis by Martin Willis

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 25.4

Special Issue

Renewing Local Democracy? The Modernisation Agenda in British Local Government

Edited by: Lawrence Pratchett

Introduction: Defining Democratic Renewal by Lawrence Pratchett

The Key Themes of Democratic Renewal by Hilary Armstrong MP

The contents of the Local Government White Paper Modern Local Government: In Touch with the People have been widely discussed so the article does not spell out its contents in detail or run through its main proposals. Instead, it sketches out the political themes which the author believes In Touch with the People represents and the opportunities for local government which they present. Those themes are: redefining the relationship of local government with the people; earning public expenditure; ending ideological battles over public service provision; and innovation in governance.

Democratic Renewal in Local Government: Continuity and Change by Andrew Gray and Bill Jenkins

Assessing the British government's programme for democratic renewal in local government requires a recognition that local self-government is distinguished from other forms of local governance by the elected basis of relatively autonomous multi-purpose authorities. Its contribution to the democratic state may be functional in promoting self-government or dysfunctional in promoting differentiation and inequality of area. Thus New Labour faces an old dilemma. Resolving it may require a consideration of participation and especially alienation and an assessment of the extent to which more or less devolution to local authorities serves the priorities of our time.

Public Participation and the Democratic Renewal Agenda: Prioritisation or Marginalisation? by Steve Leach and Melvin Wingfield

The White Paper Modern Local Government: In Touch with the People contains a range of proposals for modernising British local government. Some are concerned with improving the quality, cost-effectiveness and responsiveness of local services, in a project labelled 'Best Value', which will form the main content of the Local Government Bill, to be published and enacted during the 1998-99 parliamentary session. Other proposals, however, are concerned with the constitutional position of local government, which for various reasons is viewed as in need of 'democratic renewal'. There are four key elements to the democratic renewal programme: a set of proposals focused on improving electoral turnout in local elections; a commitment and proposed legislative framework for facilitating community leadership; a set of proposals for transforming the internal political management structures and processes of local authorities (centred on the idea of an executive/assembly split); and guidelines aimed at developing opportunities for citizens to participate in local government.

Researching Public Participation by Marian Barnes

In an article entitled 'Research and User Involvement: Contributions to Learning and Methods', Gerald Wistow and I argued that research had an important role to play both as means of enabling users' voices to be heard, and as a means of understanding more about 'user involvement' itself - what it means for the users who become involved, for the agencies seeking to hear from those who use their services, and how the benefits to both might be maximised. At the time we were engaged in what was then a rather innovative project involving collaboration between a local authority and health authorities in order to involve people who use services in developing both the policy and practice of community care. The Department of Health had considered the Birmingham Community Care Special Action Project (CCSAP) suitably significant to warrant funding an evaluation in order to learn the lessons of this way of working and to contribute to supporting similar developments elsewhere.

The Party Group: A Barrier to Democratic Renewal? by Colin Copus

The political party group is the most important place in which councillors consider and debate local issues, decide political tactics and, in the majority group, make political decisions. Group processes are private. Moreover, party groups demand, and receive, members' loyalty over and above even the wishes of the councillor's own electorate. This paper considers councillors' group loyalty and its impact on the democratic renewal project. It examines how groups could react to maintain influence under new political management, and argues that whilst the democratic renewal debate has so far largely ignored the party group, it represents a barrier to that project. Moreover, new models of political management generate pressures that, far from opening up local political processes, will drive them further into the privacy of the group.

Political Leadership in the New Urban Governance: Britain and France Compared by Peter John and Alistair Cole

The tension between leadership and democracy is always implicit in the governance of the contemporary city. The qualities that make local political systems work are the same ones that can undermine the claims of liberal democracy to be an effective and responsive type of government. Yet there are circumstances when strong leadership combines with effective democratic control. In particular, we argue in this paper that there are creative pathways that local political leaders may take to mobilise local communities for collective action; and skilful leaders can raise the governing capacity of local communities. To achieve these contradictory aims, there are a variety of leadership styles that emerge in different contexts, and each has its costs and benefits.

Rebuilding Trust in Central/Local Relations: Policy or Passion? by Vivien Lowndes

The concept of 'trust' has become central to New Labour's discourse. Renewing trust between central and local government is seen as vital in establishing a new and productive working relationship, replacing the suspicion - even downright hostility - which characterised most transactions under previous Conservative administrations. Renewing trust between local communities and local councils is seen as fundamental not just to the future health of local democracy but to the government's wider project of 'modernising' the British constitution. Where the Conservative government sought to recast the essence of local government in terms of efficiency or 'value for money', Labour sees renewed trust between councils and communities as a core goal of local government reform. An ambitious programme of 'democratic renewal' aims to rebuild citizens' trust in governance.

Index to Volume 25

Abstracts of articles in Issue 25.3

Local Authorities' Role in Distributing the Lottery to Sport by Geoff Nichols and John Sparrowhawk

As local authorities' budgets for recreation have been reduced, the National Lottery represents a new source of capital funding. But lottery applications, whether from local authorities directly or from voluntary sports clubs in their areas, must meet the Sports Council criteria. Thus the allocation of lottery money is not as directly under local authorities' control as was allocation of their own budget. This paper explores how, through selective support of voluntary sports clubs, local authorities can influence the allocation of lottery grants to reflect their own strategic priorities.

Marketing: A New Organising Principle for Local Government? by John May and Karin Newman

A local government practitioner and a marketing academic consider the claims for marketing as a new organising principle for local government. They scrutinise the most frequent objections to the concept of marketing in this context and demonstrate that these have little or no force. This is especially true concerning the emerging paradigms of relationship marketing and Webster's development of the marketing concept. The authors conclude that a marketing philosophy underlies much of the new approach to local government service provision, and set out some of the characteristics which local government marketing needs to have.

Management, Markets and Democracy: Australian Local Government Reform in the 1990s by Neil Marshall, Angus Witherby and Brian Dollery

Australian local government has been subjected to extensive reform during the 1990s. This article considers the three main dimensions of the reforms - changes to management structures, the introduction of competition policy, and municipal consolidation. It reviews the evidence available about the nature of outcomes and examines the impact of the reforms on governance values. It is argued that, so far, economic considerations have been balanced by a commitment to community participation. Recent political developments, however, may yet prove to be an emerging threat.

Explanations of, and Responses to, Youth Homelessness in Local Authority Housing Departments by Jamie Harding

This article examines the relationship between beliefs about youth homelessness and the steps being taken by local authorities to tackle the problem, based on interviews with officers responsible for dealing with youth homelessness in north-eastern local authorities. Officers blamed young people's homelessness on a wide range of factors, but the action they thought appropriate to tackle the problem tended to focus on making more accommodation available or supporting young people to live in it, but officers expressed frustration at their inability to provide adequate support It appeared that action to meet young people's needs was most likely to be taken when it also incorporated a 'housing management' objective such as filling empty properties.

Transfers of Undertakings - A New Meaning? by Malcolm Sargeant

Defining the meaning of a transfer of an undertaking in the context of outsourcing has led to much litigation. After years of discussion the Acquired Rights Directive, which has been the source of much confusion and misunderstanding, has been amended. Unfortunately, the new Directive does little more than follow the approach of the European Court of Justice and has done little to make matters more certain. This article examines the change of definition and argues that they are inadequate. Transplanting Ideas in Policy Networks: Reinventing Local Government and the Case of Steel Action by Geoffrey Dudley The crisis in local government has made it susceptible to the well known principles of Reinventing Government, particularly ideas about partnership and government as catalyst. It is important however, to understand the conditions under which new ideas, such as reinventing local government, can be successfully transplanted into existing policy networks. Hence the article examines the contrasting fortunes of the local authority single issue group Steel Action in the domestic and EU arenas. It concludes that governance as 'steering' is perhaps best seen in terms of the dynamics of a learning process with a high degree of uncertainty.

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 25.2

Special Issue

Managing Local Services: From CCT to Best Value

Edited by: George A Boyne

Introduction: Processes, Performance and Best Value in Local Government by George A Boyne

Perspectives on Contractual Relationships and the Move to Best Value in Local Authorities by Bruce Walker and Howard Davis

This article is concerned with the nature of the contracting relationship in local authorities. After considering some of the implications of a basic model of contracting (principal-agent theory) and questioning some of its implications, we briefly examine whether the Compulsory Competitive Tendering (CCT) regime is likely to have forced many clients and contractors into the more adversarial style of contract management that the theory predicts. We then broaden the discussion to incorporate the important concepts of transactional and relational contracting, and draw on some of the findings from our ESRC-sponsored study of local authority contracting to assess the degree to which parties to local authority contracts act, or wish to act, in a more relational manner. We then consider some of the implications of the Best Value regime as it is currently being constructed. We conclude by suggesting that while there may be more scope for relational contracting as a result of this regime, there are some important requirements which need to be placed upon public sector contracting behaviour that should limit the implementation of 'full' relational styles in practice.

From CCT to Best Value: Some Evidence and Observations by John Wilson

The Labour government is committed to introducing the policy of Best Value (BV) and, in so doing, it will abolish the centrepiece of previous Conservative policy towards local government, that is, Compulsory Competitive Tendering (CCT). CCT was designed to effect not only improvements in service delivery but also a cultural change amongst local authority personnel. The ability of local government to respond to BV may be gauged by considering its response to, and the impact of, CCT. This paper focuses on the views of a key group of local authority personnel, finance professionals, and considers the extent to which CCT, as applied to blue collar and non-finance white collar services, had a beneficial impact on service delivery and facilitated a change in attitude amongst local government officers.

Picking Winners or Piloting Best Value? An Analysis of English Best Value Bids by Steve Martin

The Best Value pilot programme established in England by the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions represents an attempt to develop a new style of policy making which relies more on persuasion and less on detailed prescription and regulation than the Compulsory Competitive Tendering regime introduced under the Conservative governments of the 1980s and early 1990s. The programme includes a range of different types of local authority, as well as two police forces. It spans all major local authority services and functions and embraces a wide variety of approaches to achieving Best Value. This heterogeneity makes evaluating the impacts of Best Value on service costs and standards difficult. However, it increases the chances of securing broad based support for the Best Value regime and stimulating organisational and cultural change in local government.

Best Value in Welsh Local Government: Progress and Prospects by George A Boyne, Julian Gould-Williams, Jennifer Law and Richard Walker

The development and distinctive characteristics of Best Value in Wales are analysed on the basis of an extensive set of interviews with elected members and officers in all of the Welsh pilot authorities. The close relationship between the Welsh Office and the Welsh Local Government Association has shaped the Best Value regime. These organisations have steered the formulation of the policy, and have drivem its implementation at a faster pace than in England. A consequence is that Welsh pilots have confronted difficult issues concerning performance plans and service reviews ahead of their English counterparts. The prospects for the implementation of Best Value are evaluated on the basis of Welsh pilots' experience with the first wave of 127 service reviews.

Preparing for Best Value by Dean Bartlett, Paul Corrigan, Pauline Dibben, Simon Franklin, Paul Joyce, Tony McNulty and Aidan Rose

Best Value marks a strategic shift in local government policy making. This paper analyses how two local authorities prepared its implementation. CCT aimed to make authorities more innovative but failed because it was highly prescriptive. Best Value provides the opportunity for authorities to make more strategic choices. The two case studies show evidence of greater partnership development and examples of political and technical implementation problems. The paper also analyses opportunities for organisational learning and the role of members and the public. Best Value is seen as an incomplete idea and therefore has the possibility of resulting in a new form of bureaucratisation. Alternatively, if the focus is on community problems then it may enable authorities to be more innovative and dynamic.

A Whole-Authority Approach to Testing and Developing Best Value by D Brian James and Joseph J Field

Sir Jeremy Beecham, Chairman of the Local Government Association, has said: 'Best Value demands a cultural transformation in local government. It requires a positive commitment from Members and Officers in every local authority to build a culture of public accountability and continuous improvement' (Beecham, 1998: 13). For the Welsh unitaries and some authorities in England, the culture changes required by the Best Value regime have been additional to those accompanying a recent reorganisation of local government. The Best Value pilot studies are being evaluated in England by Warwick University and in Wales by the Cardiff Business School and they are being monitored by external auditors. This work will facilitate a thorough critical review of the process, yet there is much which can also be learned through self analysis by the pilots themselves and by sharing their experiences with others. This paper explains how Torfaen County Borough Council responded to the challenge of Best Value, outlines the corporate approach taken by the authority, and provides a perspective from the head of a service department.

Abstracts of articles in Issue 25.1

Measuring the Threat of Competition - Services for the Elderly in the City of Stockholm by Roland Almqvist

This paper sets out a method for the purpose of isolating effects of the competition threat. The case investigated is care of the elderly in the city of Stockholm, which introduced competitive tendering for the 1993 budget year. Three approaches - based on three simple quantitative models - have been presented for the purpose. Cost cutting with respect to full-time annual staff appointments has been a consistent variable in all three models. However, this has been juxtaposed with a number of changing variables. Initially, each unit's savings were compared with the saving requirements of the unit concerned. In a second model, the unit managers were divided into two groups: those who perceived a threat of competition during the period that the competition programme was applied, and those who did not. A third model was also applied in which the unit managers themselves had to estimate how large a proportion of the unit's savings they were willing to attribute to the fact that it faced competition. The result showed that one plausible assumption is that the threat of competition has had an effect in the form of savings.

The Political Party Group: Model Standing Orders and a Disciplined Approach toward Local Representation by Colin Copus

This paper considers how the three main political parties - and the two nationalist parties - use model standing orders to bring cohesion and discipline to their council party groups. The paper explores how these models indicate the national party's expectations of the organisation and activities of the group and the relationship between the group and its members. It compares the key similarities and differences in the parties approaches to regulating group activity. It examines the role of group standing orders in maintaining councillor loyalty to the group and ensuring councillors act as unified blocs in public. Local Government Resource Use under a Centralised System of Financing: The Case of Norway by Lars-Erik Borge and Jørn Rattsø In Norway decentralised provision of welfare services is combined with a centralised system of financing local and county governments. The paper offers an overview of the historical background of the centralised financing, and discusses the economic consequences in relation to recent empirical analyses of local government resource use. The main findings are: (i) Norwegian local governments are not very responsive to changes in the age composition of the population; (ii) the degree of sluggishness is related to interest group pressure; (iii) local governments with a 'weak' political leadership are more likely to accommodate interest group pressure to increase spending and thereby the budget deficit; (iv) 'strong' central governments seem to be less vulnerable to strategic grant-seeking behaviour by local governments.

Local Government in Cuba: Democracy Through Participation? by John Greenwood and George Lambie

Cuban local government as a subject has been largely ignored. Moreover, being widely perceived as part of a hard-line anti-democratic dictatorship, its role may generally have been misunderstood. This article both fills the information gap and assesses the Cuban system against 'justifications' for local government usually advanced in the West. It suggests that, while Cuban local government may not provide local democracy in the liberal democratic mould, it allows active citizen participation, is a considerable force for local innovation and self-help, and may yet provide the vehicle for the further development of a uniquely Cuban model of democracy.

Redefining Acceptable Conduct: Using Social Landlords to Control Behaviour by Peter Brown

The 1996 Housing Act brought 'antisocial behaviour' within the remit of housing legislation for the first time. This legislation is directed exclusively at those living in council housing. There still remains uncertainty about the exact nature of 'antisocial' behaviour. This has implications for the reasons for outlawing it and for the application of this legislation. Using data from the British Crime Survey, it is argued that there is insufficient evidence of a growth in antisocial behaviour. This legislation is directed exclusively at those living in council housing. What appears to be occurring on local authority housing estates is that a combination of, among other things, high unemployment, high child densities and lack of public funding in community and associated facilities is resulting in higher rates of vandalism. The legislation, in reality, seeks to legitimise opposition to a range of previously acceptable behaviours.

Glasgow: Anatomy of a Fiscal Crisis by Paul Carmichael and Arthur Midwinter

Ostensibly, the reorganisation of Scottish local government in 1996 was intended to create a more local, more efficient and more accountable system of local government. However, simultaneously, through grant abatement, the government intensified its fiscal squeeze on local government, seeking in real terms reductions in local authority expenditure. Contrary to assurances from ministers, both developments occasioned disruption for local authorities, with Glasgow in particular experiencing a severe period of fiscal stress. This paper outlines a research framework for identifying potential causal factors behind the acute nature of Glasgow's fiscal crisis, whilst considering the budgetary constraints within which Scottish (and indeed British) local authorities must operate. Finally, it focuses on the impact and resolution of the crisis and highlights the crucial role that the decisions of central government have played in shaping the response of one major local authority.

Review Article: Sub-National Coalition Government Formation in Belgium, France and Germany by Michael Thrasher

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 24.4

Beyond Performance Measurement? Assessing 'Value' in Local Government by Ian Sanderson

As reforms of the public sector have introduced market relationships and private sector management practices, a 'managerialist' conception of accountability has developed, tied to a panoply of forms of performance measurement and 'surveillance' and which is now strongly evident in the government's 'best value' framework for local government. This exemplar of 'instrumental rationality' provides an inadequate basis for realising the full potential role of evaluation in the process of 'renewing' local government. A 'critical-pluralist' approach is proposed as a basis for enhancing the capacity of local government to address complex economic and social problems, to embed learning and improvement and to develop a meaningful 'dialogue' with its citizens.

Local Authority Performance Indicators: Dousing the Fire of Campaigning Consumers? by Julia Edwards

Much criticism has been levelled at the reliability of the Audit Commission's measures of local authority performance, but less attention has been paid to the reality of their empowering effect on consumer groups. This article reports on the impact of the policy on one consumer group, ALL MOD CONS, a national charity which campaigns for more and better public toilets. It argues that, far from empowering the group, the annual publication of performance indicators has diverted its energies and resources into disseminating the Audit Commision's statistics to their members and drawing misleading conclusions from them which risk undermining the group's credibility. The case raises questions about the role of performance indicators in the democratic process.

Nolan, Councillors and Planning by Tony Stott

This article focuses on the role of councillors in planning. The views of the Nolan Committee, which were expressed in their third report, are set into the context of other reports, published during the 1990s, about the way councillors exercised their planning responsibilities. Two contrasting views of the planning system as a quasi-judicial process and as an administrative/representative process are highlighted. The article concludes that the Nolan report is significant because it reasserts the representative role of councillors in contrast to the professional planning view that councillors should perform a quasi-judicial role.

Local Initiatives for Working Women: Feminism, Economics, or Both? by Jane Kettle

This article examines a public/private sector initiative instigated by Leeds City Council to redress gender inequality in employment. It uses this independent initiative, Opp2k, to assess the business case for equality of opportunity in a 'post-feminist' context. It considers whether or not intended outcomes will make a coherent attempt to redress structural inequality, or whether this is a response to demographic and economic trends indicating increased demand for female labour. Finally it addresses the potential impact of public/private partnerships in implementing equal opportunities. The Demand for Local Authority Museums: Management Issues and Hard Evidence by Adrian Darnell, Peter Johnson and Barry Thomas Local authority museums have experienced a rapidly changing competitive environment. Shifts in cultural policy at national and local level have led to more emphasis on plural funding, customer orientation and management for efficiency and effectiveness. This paper shows how knowledge of visitor demand can be of value in facing this challenge. The estimated demand equation is shown to yield useful information and insights on some key management issues, most notably the relationship between pricing policy and the achievement of objectives relating to visitor numbers and to revenue.

Strategic Housing Debates in the North-East: Giving Voice to Sustainable Futures? by Angela Hull

This article examines how key stakeholders are using the review of the regional planning guidance for the north-east of England to debate where to absorb future expected household growth. In particular, concepts on how sustainable development can be operationalised at the regional level are compared with current government policies and ideas on best practice. The paper concludes that although there is considerable impetus amongst local authority planners to improve the sustainability of regional planning guidance they are constrained by the sectoral nature of government policies and the lack of political will in regions.

Book Reviews

Index to Volume 24

Abstracts of articles in Issue 24.2

Voluntary Groups and Local Authorities: Rethinking the Relationship by Steve Leach and David Wilson

This article examines the changing nature of the relationships between voluntary groups and local authorities. It argues that the advent of the 'contract culture' has had a direct impact upon relationships. There is now a much greater preparedness of local authorities to work with, and channel funds to, a wide variety of external agencies including voluntary bodies. Equally important has been an increasing differentiation in the way local authorities define their own role and purpose, resulting in a greater variety of orientations to local groups. These developments provide both opportunities and dangers for voluntary organisations.

New Electronic Communication from Local Government - Marginal or Revolutionary? by Robert Hall

This paper examines the use made by local government of the World Wide Web (WWW). An overview of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and in particular this new communications medium is provided. An analysis is performed of a sample of ten local authorities who are actively using the WWW for a variety of purposes. Five determinants are described which may indicate whether the use of the WWW will only an operational effect or whether it will enable a strategic transformation in interaction with citizens and the way local government itself is organised.

Problems of Applying a Programme Approach to Intergovernmental Policy Delivery by Brian W Hogwood

One set of problems facing anyone trying to track public expenditure programmes is how to handle the intergovernmental aspects. This can be illustrated by Rose and Davies's study of public expenditure in Britain. Amongst these problems are changes to the system of grants from central government to local authorities and transfers of functions between local and central government. There are also problems in the consistency with which Rose and Davies use central government grant or all of relevant expenditure in devising programmes. As a result, Rose and Davies findings about local government expenditure programmes lack consistency over time or between programmes. These discrepancies occur in what in some cases are the largest programme in their policy area, so they also undermine the empirical and theoretical conclusions drawn about policy change as a whole in Britain. Alternative approaches and data may provide a more meaningful tracking of policy change.

Elected Mayors and De-Facto Decentralisation, Israeli Style by David Dery

This paper advances the conjecture that the shift to a direct election of mayors in Israel, a most significant step towards recognising local authorities as political entities in their own right, has prevented further progress in the same direction. Hirschman's 'getting stuck syndrome' is used here to explore this paradox. Since a highly centralised system is not compatible with a 'strong mayor system', there developed an ingenious scheme - 'de-facto decentralisation' - a peculiar blend of formal 'agency' relationship, informal 'partnership' and 'grey-area' autonomy. This scheme persists apparently because it is well suited to a world of ambiguous and conflicting imperatives.

Towards Evidence-Based Local Government: Theory and Practice by Tim Blackman

'Evidence-based practice' is a term used in Britain's National Health Service to describe the use of research evidence in policy, management and practice decisions. This article develops this idea and explores its use in local government decision making, using case studies of social care and education. It argues that the absence of a funding stream to support local authorities' own research reinforces a view of local authorities as essentially administrative arms of the state, supervised through service-by-service performance measurement, rather than 'intelligent' agents using local research to develop evidence-based policies.

The Evolution of Management in UK Local Government; Reflections on the Creation of a Competence-Based Management Development Programme by Stephen Gibb and Linda Knox

This article presents evidence from a case study of the implementation of a new management development system in a major local authority. The adoption of a competence-based management system is described, illustrating that there was great scope for adopting an explicitly 'generic' and managerialist model of management. It is clear that such a managerialist framework was not adopted. The explanation for the retention of a distinctive public management identity lies in the influence of both objective and subjective factors, the nature of the management role in local government, and the influence of the stakeholders who participated in creating the programme. The evolution of management development was an opportunity to identify and negotiate a new consensus about distinctive public management in local government. The implications of this analysis for evaluating the robustness of public sector management in the past and present, and lessons for the future evolution of management in local government, are considered.

Review Article: United We Stand, Divided We Fall by Rosemary Littlechild, Sue Wainwright and John Doling

Book Reviews

Abstracts of articles in Issue 24.1

Local Governance: The Relevance of Transaction Cost Economics by Alex Marsh

Only relatively recently have the implications of transaction cost economics (TCE) for local governance been appreciated. TCE appears to offer a weapon against fragmentation. This paper uses contracting for social housing management to illustrate the possibilities. However, TCE has attracted considerable criticism bothinside and outside economics. Any analysisseeking inspiration from TCE should be informed by an understanding of the central critical concerns. This paper suggests that TCE currently offers limited assistance to the analysis of local service organisation. Analysis of local governance which seeks inspiration from the economics literature must move beyond TCE to more institutionally sensitive approaches. The Innovative Capacity of Voluntary Organisations: Managerial Challenges for Local Government by Stephen P Osborne This paper describes a recent major study of the innovative capacity of voluntary organisations in the provision of local community services. It uses this to draw out the key challenges for local government of managing this capacity in the context of the plural provision of public services. In particular it emphasises the importance of understanding the active role that local government can play in stimulating this capacity, and the importance of trust and of interorganisational collaboration in its management.

German Lessons in Local Government: The Opportunities and Pitfalls of Managing Change by Howard Elcock

Management change in local authorities has increased interest in lessons from abroad. The German Land Nordrhein-Westfalen offers particularly fruitful scope for comparison because it is undertaking a change which is also being contemplated here. Its local authorities are abandoning their leadership structure, which consisted of a Mayor elected by the council and a chief executive officer appointed as the administrative head of the local government, replacing it with American-style directly elected executive Mayors. The old and new offices are assessed both in terms of their roles as co-ordinators of internal management and as ambassadors to business and other governments for their communities.

The Glass Ceiling in Local Government: A Case Study by Lesley Holly

Barriers to women's progress in senior management is often referred to as 'the glass ceiling'. This research investigated these barriers in one local authority where an equal opportunities policy was well established. Interviews with employees in six departments focused on perceptions of and experiences of women in senior management. This study provides some evidence that change has taken place and staff in some departments suggest that a new climate of working relations has been fostered through policies and training. This change continues to be mainly limited to non-management grades. This research questions why there are so few women in senior management in the local authority and raises issues about their experiences.

Minority Ethnic Housing Associations and Local Housing Strategies: An Uncertain Future? by Malcolm Harrison

This paper discusses future prospects for minority ethnic housing associations in the context of local housing strategies. It takes account of some major developments in Housing Corporation policy which took place towards the end of the period of Conservative government, and considers the impact of the elaction of the new Labour government. The change of government provides an appropriate moment at which to draw attention to the positive achievements of the past ten years, and to highlight possible options for building further on the work of the associations in the late 1990s.

Managers' Innovations in a Social Work Context by John Coopey, Orla Keegan And Nick Emler

The paper draws on a research study concerned with innovations reported and 'claimed' by individual social work managers in a large Scottish local authority. Analysis of the data, in the context of social work during the legislative and regulatory flux of the 1980s and early 1990s, took as its starting point the relationship between the focal innovations and various strategic policies and directions established within the authority. Within this setting the researchers provide a more general interpretation of the processes through which innovations are prompted, developed and realised in organisations.